REFERENCES 

FOR 

LITERARY  WORKERS 


. REFERENCES 


FOR 


LITERARY  WORKERS 


WITH    INTRODUCTIONS   TO   TOPICS 


AND 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DEBATE 

BY 

HENRY   MATSON 


CHICAGO 

A.    C.    McCLURG    &    CO. 
1904 


COPYRIGHT 
BY  A.  C.  MCCLURG  AND  Co. 

A.D.   1892 


PREFACE. 


THE  aim  of  this  book  is  to  combine,  in  respect  to  its 
subjects,  the  practical  use  of  their  bibliography  with 
their  brief  elucidation.  Both  are  of  real  if  not  of  equal  im- 
portance, and  together  give  the  work  a  twofold  value. 

The  subjects  are  in  their  range  various  and  comprehen- 
sive, in  their  character  representative  and  select ;  and  an 
attempt  has  been  made,  by  their  arrangement  under  gen- 
eral divisions,  to  give  the  work  as  a  whole  a  certain  order 
and  unity. 

It  is  thus  made  more  than  a  mere  book  of  reference,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a  collection  of  brief  essays  on  related 
and  representative  topics,  supplemented  by  numerous  ref- 
erences to  fuller  sources  of  information.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  a  book  of  reference  the  introductions  may  serve 
as  a  guide  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  various  and 
often  conflicting  and  confusing  views  represented  in  the 
references. 

The  references  have  been  carefully  selected,  and,  though 
not  exhaustive,  are  full,  and  will  be  found  sufficient  for  most 
practical  purposes.  The  books  and  articles  referred  to 
have,  with  few  exceptions,  been  looked  over.  Indeed,  in 
the  gathering  of  the  references,  as  well  as  in  the  writing 
of  the  introductions,  each  subject  has  been  made  a  careful 
study.  Hence  the  lists  of  references  are  topical,  on  all 
kinds  of  subjects,  and  to  all  kinds  of  books. 


vi  PREFACE. 

The  introductions  are  meant,  in  a  general  way,  to  be 
made  somewhat  correspondent  to  the  references,  in  giving, 
not  always  the  individual  opinions  of  the  writer,  but  various 
and  often  opposite  views  of  the  subject.  The  aim  has  been 
to  unite  comprehensiveness  of  statement  with  conciseness 
of  expression. 

In  form  the  work  is  especially  adapted  to  the  common 
and  useful  exercise  of  debating;  yet  its  contents  will  be 
found  as  useful  for  many  other  kinds  of  literary  work,  as 
the  essay,  the  oration,  or  the  lecture.  Hence,  while  in- 
tended for  debaters,  for  students  in  the  preparation  of 
their  various  literary  exercises,  and  for  teachers,  it  will  be 
found  useful  by  all  who,  for  any  reason,  wish  to  pursue  the 
study  of  any  of  the  subjects  it  comprises.  Thus  its  use 
is,  in  fact,  commensurate  with  the  interest  and  utility 
of  its  subjects. 

Much  time,  care,  and  thought  have  been  given  to  the 
preparation  of  the  work,  with  the  hope  that  it  may  prove 
useful  to  many.  For  the  encouragement  and  helpful  sug- 
gestions afforded  by  friends,  the  author  desires  to  make 
grateful  acknowledgment. 

H.  M. 

August,  1892 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 17 

The  Debate 17 

The  Essay 20,  21 

The  Oration 20 

The  Lecture 21 

I.  HISTORY. 

Introductory 23 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 
QUESTION 

Introductory 24 

i,  2.     Greece  and  Rome 25 

3.  England  and  Rome 29 

4.  Marathon  and  Waterloo 30 

5.  Alexander  and  Caesar 32 

MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 

Introductory 36 

6.  Feudalism 37 

7.  Monasticism 38 

8.  The  Crusades 40 

9.  Chivalry 42 

10.  The  Papacy 44 

1 1 .  Charlemagne  and  Hildebrand 46 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

Introductory 49 

12.  Christianity  and  Modern  Civilization 50 

13.  The  Reformation  and  the  Renaissance 54 

14.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 58 

15.  Execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 59 

16.  The  Puritan  Revolution 61 

17.  Execution  of  Charles  1 62 


Vlii  CONTENTS. 

QUESTION  PAGE 

18.  Protectorate  of  Cromwell 64 

19.  Richelieu's  Policy 66 

20.  The  French  Revolution 68 

21.  Napoleon 71 

22.  Banishment  of  Napoleon 74 

23.  Napoleon  and  Hannibal 75 

24.  The  New  England  Puritans 78 

25.  Banishment  of  Roger  Williams 80 

26.  The  American  Revolution  and  Civil  War 81 

27.  American  Slavery  and  Antislavery 85 

II.  BIOGRAPHY. 

Introductory 88 

28.  Defence  of  Socrates       89 

29.  Cicero 90 

30.  Galileo 92 

31.  Queen  Elizabeth 93 

32, 33.     Lord  Bacon's  Character 94 

34.  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings 96 

35.  Frederick  the  Great,  Peter  the  Great,  and  Frederick  II. 

(Hohenstaufen) 97 

36.  Bismarck  and  Gladstone 101 

37.  Howard  and  Wilberforce 104 

38.  Columbus  and  Livingstone 106 

39.  Alfred  the  Great  and  Washington 112 

40.  Lincoln  and  Washington 116 

41.  Franklin 117 

42.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson 120 

43.  Webster  and  Clay 124 

44.  William  Lloyd  Garrison 127 

45*47      John  Brown 129 

48.  Edison 130 

IIL   POLITICS. 

Introductory 133 

49.  Representative  Democracy 134 

50-52.     Laissez  Faire  and  State  Intervention 136 

53.     The   English   Government  and  the  Government  of  the 

United  States 138 

54-56.     Party  Government 143 

57-60.     Universal  Suffrage 145 

61.  Negro  Suffrage 147 

62.  Woman  Suffrage 148 

63.  Centralization  and  State  Rights 151 


CONTENTS.  ix 

QUESTION  pAGB 

64.     Perpetuity  of  the  United  States  as  a  Nation 153 

65-67.    The  Election  of  President 155 

68.     The  Cabinet  in  Congress 157 

69-71.    The  Jury !58 

72,  73.     Capital  Punishment 160 

74.  Prisons  and  Prison  Reform 162 

75.  Suicide 164 

76-78.    The  Oath 165 

79.  Liberty  of  the  Press 167 

80.  Church  and  State 168 

81.  A  National  Bankrupt  Law 169 

82,83.    Divorce 171 

84,85.     Immigration 173 

86,^7.     Chinese  Immigration 175 

88.  The  Railway  and  the  State 176 

89.  Postal  Telegraphy 178 

90.  Prohibition  of  the  Liquor  Traffic 179 

91-93.     Union  of  Canada  with  the  United  States 182 

94, 95.     The  Balance  of  Power 183 

96.  The  Turkish  Empire 185 

97.  Russian  Nihilism 186 

98.  English  Aristocracy 188 

99.  TOO.    The  English  House  of  Lords 189 

101,  102.     English  Rule  in  India 191 

103.  English  Rule  in  Ireland 193 

104.  Home  Rule  for  Ireland 194 

IV.    POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 

Introductory 197 

105-108.     Protection  and  Free  Trade 198 

109.     Commerce  and  Manufactures 204 

110,111.     Bimetalism 206 

112,113.     An  Income  Tax 209 

114,115.     Taxation  of  Church  Property 211 

116-119.     The  System  of  Henry  George 212 

120, 121.    Monopolies 215 

122-124.    Trusts 217 

125, 126.     Competition .  219 

127-129.     Co-operation 220 

130.    Trade  Unions 223 

131,132.     Strikes 225 

133.  Machinery  and  the  Laboring  Class 228 

134.  Division  of  Labor  and  Individual  Development  ....  229 

135.  Usury  Laws 23J 

136.  137      Woman's  Wages 232 


CONTENTS. 


V.    EDUCATION. 

QUESTION  PAGE 

Introductory 234 

138,139.     Intelligence  and  Morality 236 

140.  Compulsory  Education 237 

141.  National  Aid  to  Education 238 

142.  The  Bible  and  Public  Schools 239 

143.  Emulation  in  Education 241 

-144.     College-bred  Men  and  Self-educated  Men 242 

145.  Co-education 244-^ 

146.  State  Universities  and  Colleges 246 

147.  A  National  University 248 

148.  College  Government 249 

149.  Self-government  in  Colleges 250 

[50.     School  Examinations 251 

151-155.    The  Classics  and  a  Liberal  Education 252 

156,157.     Philosophy  and  Mathematics 259 

15%*  159-     Astronomy  and  Geology 261 

160.  History  and  Biography 263 

161.  The  Spelling  Reform 264 


VI.    LITERATURE. 

Introductory 267 

162,  163.     Authorship  of  the  Homeric  Poems 269 

164.  The  Iliad  and  the  ^Eneid 270 

165.  Dante  and  Milton 273 

1 66.  The  Greek  and  English  Dramatists 277 

167.  Ancient  and  Modern  Oratory 280 

1 68.  Demosthenes  and  Cicero 282 

169.  Thucydides  and  Tacitus 285 

170.  Elizabethan,  Victorian,  and  Augustan  Literature     .     .     .  289 

171.  Chaucer  and  Spenser 291 

172.  Shakespeare  and  Goethe 294 

173.  Hamlet's  Madness 299 

174.  The  Bacon-Shakespeare  Question 300 

175.  Goethe  and  Schiller 302 

176.  Mephistopheles  and  Satan 304 

177.  Dryden  and  Pope 306 

178.  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge 309 

179.  Byron  and  Shelley 312 

180.  Browning  and  Tennyson 317 

181.  Bryant  and  Longfellow 322 

182.  Fiction 326 

183.  Scott  as  Novelist  and  Poet 329 


CONTENTS.  XI 

QUESTION  pAGH 

184.  Thackeray  and  Dickens 33! 

185.  George  Eliot  and  Mrs.  Browning 335 

186.  Balzac  and  Hugo 339 

187.  Montaigne  and  Addison 342 

188.  Carlyle  and  Emerson 346 

189.  Hawthorne  and  Irving 351 

190.  Voltaire 354 

191.  Rousseau 356 


VII.    ART. 

Introductory 358 

192.    Greek  Art  and  Renaissance  Art 359 

193, 194.    Art  and  Science 362 

195.  Poetry  and  Science 363 

196,  197.     Art  and  Morality 365 

198.  Art  and  Religion       366 

199,  200.     Photography  and  Engraving 368 

201.  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael 370 

202.  Beethoven  and  Mozart 372 

203-205.     Wagner 374 


VIII.    SCIENCE. 

Introductory 377 

206.  Bacon  and  Newton 379 

207,  208.    Darwin  and  Agassiz 383 

209.     The  Atomic  Theory 387 

210,211.    The  Nebular  Hypothesis 388 

212-214.     Evolution 390 

215.  The  Descent  of  Man 394 

216.  The  Human  and  the  Brute  Mind 396 

217.  The  Antiquity  of  Man 399 

218.  219.     Unity  of  Mankind 401 

220, 221.     Savagism 402 

222.  Heredity  and  Environment 404 

223.  Hereditary  Genius 406 

224-226.     History  as  Science 407 

227, 228.    Vivisection 409 

229,  230.     The  Plurality  of  Worlds 410 

231.  Arctic  Exploration 412 

232.  Revelations  of  Telescope  and  Microscope 414 

233.  Telegraph  and  Telephone 415 


xii  CONTENTS. 

IX.    PHILOSOPHY. 

PAGE 

Introductory 418 

GREEK  PHILOSOPHY. 

QUESTION 

Introductory 420 

234,235.    The  Greek  Sophists 421 

236,237.     Socrates  423 

238, 239.     Plato  and  Aristotle 425 

240, 241.    Stoicism 431 

MODERN  PHILOSOPHY. 

Introductory 433 

244, 245.     Descartes 434 

246,247.     Locke 436 

248-250.     Kant 438 

251, 252.     Inductive  Reasoning .  441 

253.     Optimism  and  Pessimism 443 

2 54>  255-     Mind  Force  and  Physical  Force 445 

256,  257.     Thought  and  Language 447 

258, 259.     Imagination  and  Reason 449 

X.    ETHICS. 

Introductory 452 

260-262.     Free  Will 453 

263, 264.     Conscience 458 

265,  266.     Deception  and  Lying       460 

267,  268.     Insanity  and  Responsibility 461 

269.     Dancing  and  Card-playing .  462 

270-272.     The  Theatre 464 

XI.    RELIGION. 

Introductory 467 

273-275.     The  Primitive  Religion 470 

276.     Tribes  of  Atheists 472 

277, 278.     Buddhism 473 

279.  Mohammedanism 476 

280.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 478 

281.  Jesuitism 480 

282, 283.     Protestant  Sects 483 

284.  American  Unitarianism 484 

285,  286.     Faith,  Knowledge,  and  Reason 487 

287.     Scepticism  and  Progress 488 

288, 289.     Mysticism 490 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

QUESTION  PAGE 

290.  Immortality .  492 

291,  292.     Probation  after  Death 494 

293.  Revivals  of  Religion 496 

294,  295.     The  Salvation  Army 498 

296.     Pastoral  Work  and  Preaching 499 

297, 298.     Extempore  Preaching  and  Written  Sermons     .     .    .  501 

299, 300.     Political  Preaching 502 

301.    The  Pulpit  and  the  Press 504 

302,303.     Creeds 506 

304.  Moses  and  David 507 

305.  Paul  and  John 510 

306.  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  and  the  Imitation  of  Christ     .    .  514 

307.  Luther  and  Calvin 516 

308.  Wesley  and  Calvin 519 

309.  Calvin  and  Servetus 521 

310.  Newman  and  Maurice 522 

311.  Beecher  and  Spurgeon 525 


XII.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

312.  Reformer  and  Conservative 527 

313.  Pauperism  and  Illiteracy 528 

314.  Poverty  and  Wealth  as  productive  of  Crime 530 

315.  Cities 531 

316.  Country  and  City 532 

317.  Solitude  and  Society 534 

318.  Success 535 

3i9-  War 536 

320.  Slavery  and  Intemperance 538 

321.  Drunkenness  and  the  Opium  Habit 540 

322.  Cremation 541 

323.  Origin  of  Language 542 

324.  Woman's  Intellect 543 


QUESTIONS  WITH  REFERENCES 545 

QUESTIONS  WITHOUT  REFERENCES 560 

CYCLOPEDIAS  AND  PERIODICALS   REFERRED  TO,  WITH  AB- 
BREVIATED FORMS 572 

ABBREVIATIONS  USED ,    .    .    .  575 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 577 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  DEBATE.  —  THE  ESSAY,  ORATION,  AND  LECTURE. 

THE  debate  is  a  contention  by  argument,  between 
two  or  more,  on  a  question  of  fact  or  principle 
respecting  which  there  may  be  affirmation  and  denial. 

The  occasions  for  debate  are  found  in  the  inevitable 
conflict  of  truth  and  error,  in  the  multiformity  of  truth 
itself,  in  the  diversity  and  limitations  of  human  minds  and 
in  their  consequent  partial  and  contrary  views,  in  the  end- 
less antagonisms  of  life,  and  in  efforts  for  the  advancement 
of  progress. 

The  debate  has  two  sides,  which  are  not  only  opposite, 
but  contradictory ;  hence  the  end  sought  is  victory.  But 
the  victory  is  the  triumph,  in  one  way  or  the  other,  of  that 
for  which  the  contention  is  made ;  hence,  while  victory 
is  the  immediate  spur  to  the  utmost  effort,  it  is  with  the 
subject  itself  that  the  mind  must  be  filled.  Its  nature  and 
importance  must  be  clearly  and  fully  shown,  and  its  advo- 
cate must  aim  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the  judges  his 
own  views  and  feelings. 

The  proper  weapons  of  the  debate  are  arguments  or 
reasons,  and  it  is  the  weight  of  these  which  should  win 
the  decision.  Each  disputant  should,  to  the  utmost  of 
his  ability,  make  the  most  that  can  be  made  of  his  own 
side.  But  in  order  to  this  there  is  necessary  the  most 
careful  and  thorough  preparation.  The  subject  must  be 
sounded  to  its  depths,  and  comprehended  in  its  largest 
scope.  One  must  study  not  only  his  own,  but  the  other 
side,  and  must  get  of  both  sides  his  opponent's  point  of 
view.  This  will  save  from  the  one-sided  and  partial  view, 


1 8         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

and  from  the  dogmatic  and  narrow  spirit  which  the  de- 
bate is  but  too  likely  to  foster.  It  will  also  tend  to  beget 
a  spirit  of  fairness  which  may  add  to  the  weight  of  one's 
own  arguments.  Yet  debaters  are  necessarily  one-sided. 
This  fact,  while  it  limits  their  view,  makes  it  more  posi- 
tive ;  and  in  positiveness  there  is  a  real  gain  and  satis- 
faction, even  though  there  be  a  loss  of  breadth. 

The  preparation  consists  in  reading  and  thought,  read- 
ing in  order  to  thought.  Reading  is  the  means  of  which 
thought  is  the  end.  The  thoughts  of  others  gained  by 
reading  excite  and  direct  one's  own  thoughts,  and  give 
them  definiteness  and  coherence.  However  original,  one 
must  in  some  degree  be  indebted  to  others  for  thought. 
But  even  if  not  strictly  original,  one  may,  by  thinking  them 
over  for  himself,  make  the  thoughts  of  others  his  own. 
For  thought  there  must  be  time.  The  best  thought  waits 
for  a  mind  at  leisure,  and  given  up  to  it.  For  a  firm  grasp 
of  the  subject,  there  must  at  least  be,  if  not  time,  concen- 
tration of  mind. 

If  the  preparation  is  for  the  development,  the  debate 
itself  is  for  the  clear  and  forcible  expression,  of  thought. 
One  should  come  to  the  debate  with  a  mind  full  to  over- 
flowing of  his  subject,  which  would  give  assurance  and 
readiness;  and  with  these  there  should  be  self-command 
and  tact.  Mastery  of  one's  subject  and  self-mastery  are 
two  important  requisites  for  success  in  debating,  as  well 
as  in  other  things. 

The  debate  is  a  battle ;  and  the  combatants  must  be 
alert,  prompt  to  meet  any  surprise  or  to  match  any  argu- 
ment. Hence  there  should  be  a  reserve  force,  which  may 
be  drawn  upon  as  occasion  may  require.  A  consciousness 
of  this  will  give  self-possession  and  coolness,  which  are 
necessary  that  one  may  understand  and  adapt  himself  to 
the  situation.  A  debate  is  a  contest  between  minds,  in 
which  the  chances  favor  those  that  are  either  the  strong- 
est or  the  most  active.  There  is,  indeed,  an  art  in  debat- 
ing which  may  be  learned,  and  skill  in  this  may  win 
success. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

But  mere  victory  is  barren.  The  debate  has  ends  higher 
and  more  substantial,  which  all  may  share,  so  that  even 
defeat  may  have  its  sure  and  abiding  compensations.  It 
is  an  important  means  of  education,  and  one  is  educated 
by  it  according  to  his  use  of  it.  It  promotes  concentra- 
tion and  activity  of  mind,  power  of  thought,  readiness 
of  expression,  and  a  directness  of  aim  in  order  to  effect 
a  definite  and  immediate  result.  There  are  thus  the  men- 
tal discipline  and  development  which  come  from  study 
and  from  collision  with  other  minds.  Its  immediate  practi- 
cal issue  furnishes  the  mind  a  powerful  motive  to  put  forth 
its  utmost  effort,  and  thus  makes  it  efficient  in  its  develop- 
ment. The  debate  increases  positiveness  and  intensity 
of  mind ;  and  these  must  be  restrained  by  self-control, 
and  by  the  sense  of  justice  which  shall  lead  one  to  render 
to  all  thought  its  due. 

One  of  the  most  important  ends  of  the  debate  is  the 
gaining  of  knowledge.  The  use  to  be  made  of  the  knowl- 
edge thus  gained  requires  that  it  should  be  definite,  and 
that  the  mind  should  have  a  firm  grasp  of  it.  Moreover, 
the  mind  is  quickened  to  an  unusual  intensity  in  searching 
out  and  laying  hold  of  all  knowledge  needed  for  the  gain- 
ing of  its  purpose.  But  discussion  is  also  an  important 
means  of  advancing  all  kinds  of  knowledge.  It  is  its  sure 
and  searching  test,  which  tries  knowledge  to  the  utmost, 
and  which  establishes  it  on  a  lasting  foundation.  Debate 
calls  in  question  and  leads  to  proof.  The  doubt  is  in 
the  interest  of  reason;  the  offered  proof  must  stand  the 
test  of  reason.  Hence  the  justification  of  the  debate  is 
in  its  accordance  with  reason.  Its  function  is  to  bring 
all  things  to  the  test  of  reason,  and  thus  to  develop  and 
establish  it. 

Viewed  in  this  light,  the  debate  is  not  a  mere  personal 
encounter,  but  a  conflict  of  principles.  As  such  it  is  pro- 
visional, tending  to  a  higher  unity.  For  as  sure  as  there  is 
truth,  there  is  unity ;  and  this,  by  eliminating  antagonisms, 
the  debate  promotes.  It  suppresses  and  overcomes  an- 
tagonisms by  testing  their  strength  in  conflict. 


2O        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

This,  then,  is  the  highest  end  of  the  debate,  the  triumph 
of  truth  together  with  its  development  and  progress.  This 
most  important  of  all  ends  gives  it  dignity  and  the  highest 
utility.  Disputatiousness  and  wrangling,  with  a  low  and  self- 
ish aim,  fall  far  below  the  dignity  of  calm  and  fair  debate. 
In  any  profitable  and  fruitful  discussion  there  must  be  on 
both  sides  a  manifest  love  and  conscientious  regard  for  the 
truth,  which  shall  not  only  keep  it  inviolate,  but  shall  mag- 
nify its  importance.  And  to  this  most  desirable  end  both 
sides  may  alike  contribute,  for  there  should  be  nothing  on 
either  side  which  would  require  untruthfulness.  Seldom,  if 
ever,  is  all  the  truth  on  one  side.  It  is  this  presumption 
that  makes  the  debate  legitimate,  and  gives  both  sides  an 
equal  right  to  be  heard.  All  intelligent  and  unprejudiced 
minds  concede  some  degree  of  truth  to  tenets  differing 
from  their  own.  The  debate,  then,  may  be  made  an  hon- 
est search  after  the  truth  by  a  comparison  of  complementary 
truths,  and  by  the  sifting  of  error  from  truth. 

This  end  of  the  debate  will  show  what  should  be  its  sub- 
jects. Its  subjects  may  be  selected  at  will  from  the  whole 
range  of  human  knowledge.  These  subjects  should  be 
varied,  but  not  miscellaneous.  They  should  be  chosen,  not 
by  chance  or  caprice,  but  in  accordance  with  a  plan  and 
with  a  distinct  purpose.  The  subjects  of  debate  may  have 
a  scope  as  large  as  the  subjects  of  study.  The  debate,  like 
general  reading,  may  be  made  supplementary  to  a  course 
of  study,  becoming  thus  an  important  auxiliary  to  a  system 
of  mental  training. 

The  essay  and  the  oration  may  have  an  element  of  dis- 
cussion, for  all  reasoning  is  of  this  character.  The  essay 
should  be  a  looking  on  all  sides  of  a  subject,  with  at  least  a 
tendency  to  a  definite  conclusion.  It  constitutes  a  literary 
form,  which  may  comprise  every  variety  of  subject.  Prop- 
erly it  is  topical,  or  the  treating  of  a  particular  subject.  By 
its  union  of  comprehension  and  brevity  it  is  especially  suited 
to  the  spirit  of  the  present  age. 

The  oration  is  another  variety  of  literary  form,  and  should 
be  kept  distinct  from  the  essay.  An  essay  read  or  even 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

spoken  to  an  audience  is  not  thereby  made  an  oration. 
The  essay  is  written  for  the  reader,  the  oration  especially 
for  the  hearer.  Hence  the  oration  is  more  formal  and 
orderly,  embodies  more  feeling,  is  more  positive,  and  has  a 
more  definite  end.  It  must  not  be  mere  rhetoric  or  decla- 
mation. There  must  be  thought,  but  thought  suffused  with 
feeling.  Thought  convinces,  feeling  moves ;  and  to  produce 
the  proper  effect  the  two  must  be  blended. 

In  the  essay  discussion  is  found  hi  a  higher  stage  than  in 
the  debate.  In  the  one  it  has  a  unity  not  reached  in  the 
other.  The  debate  is  dual,  and  its  result  is  the  triumph  of 
the  stronger  side ;  while  the  essay  may  be  a  more  calm  and 
impartial  discussion  of  a  subject  by  a  single  mind,  from 
many  points  of  view,  and  leading  to  a  conclusion  which,  if 
less  positive,  may  be  higher  and  larger.  Yet  such  a  discus- 
sion, with  such  a  result,  must,  it  is  evident,  be  dependent 
on  the  breadth  and  temper  of  the  mind  that  conducts  it. 

From  the  nature  of  the  essay  it  is  evident  that  its  sub- 
jects may  be  selected  at  will  from  the  wide  domain  of 
human  knowledge,  and  that  its  character  will  depend  on  the 
nature  both  of  the  subject  and  of  the  mind  that  treats  it. 
The  nature  of  the  oration,  on  the  other  hand,  in  requiring 
that  its  subjects  should  be  suited  to  it,  makes  their  range 
more  limited. 

The  lecture  is  less  distinct  in  form  and  spirit  than  the 
oration.  It  may  be  merely  intellectual,  or  it  may  be  per- 
vaded by  sentiment.  It  may  partake  of  the  character  both 
of  the  essay  and  of  the  oration.  The  popular  lecture  gen- 
erally combines,  in  varying  proportions,  instruction  and 
entertainment 


REFERENCES 


FOR 


LITERARY     WORKERS. 


I.    HISTORY. 

pHE  term  history ',  like  the  term  philosophy ',  has 
•*•  both  a  general  and  a  particular  application; 
that  is,  as  there  is  a  philosophy  or  reason,  there 
may  also  be  a  history  or  account,  of  everything 
and  of  anything.  But  history,  in  its  ordinary  sense, 
is  a  narrative  of  human  events.  Events,  considered 
singly,  are  particular;  but  considered  together,  in 
their  mutual  relations,  they  become  general.  Thus 
with  the  unity  with  which  philosophy  begins  history 
ends.  The  comprehensive  history  of  man  waits  for 
the  development  of  the  race  into  an  actual  unity. 
Thus  far  general  history  has  been  concerned  with 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  race.  For  general  history 
relates  to  that  course  of  events  which  is  coincident 
with  human  progress,  —  a  progress  which,  in  its  ad- 
vancing stages,  shall  reach  all  men.  The  progress 
which  is  a  necessary  condition  and  characteristic  of 
history  has  for  its  end  the  elevation,  development, 
and  freedom  of  all  men.  This  end  comes  more  into 
view  in  modern  times,  as  the  world  is  approaching 
it  and  all  things  are  conspiring  to  effect  it.  The 
present  has  sprung  from  the  past,  and  presses  on 
to  the  future.  It  is  the  past  maturing.  The  past 
is  in  the  present,  not  as  past  but  as  enduring. 


24         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

The  present,  because  of  progress,  is  more  than  the 
past.  Hence  the  past  is  known  from  the  present 
both  by  likeness  and  by  contrast.  The  past  is  both 
less  and  more  capable  of  being  known  than  the 
present;  less,  because  it  is  distant  and  therefore 
obscure,  and  has  been  meagrely  and  even  wrongly 
reported;  more,  because,  considered  in  itself,  it  is 
completed  and  hence  the  relation  and  proportion 
of  its  parts  are  more  obvious,  and  because  by  the 
light  of  subsequent  events  its  general  significance 
has  been  made  more  plain. 

History,  as  relating  to  man,  possesses  the  highest 
interest  and  importance.  For  its  subject  comprises 
events  which  relate  to  men  in  what  they  are,  do,  and 
say,  to  government,  laws,  and  institutions,  to  religion, 
and  to  all,  in  short,  that  pertains  to  human  society. 
The  personal  element  of  history  comprises  especially 
the  great  men,  who  are  both  made  by  and  make 
their  period.  Adapted  to  their  time,  they  possess 
in  large  measure  its  characteristics,  and  are  its  best 
representatives.  Some  great  men  seem  almost  to 
make  up  the  history  of  their  times.  Their  thoughts 
and  acts  bear  fruit  a  thousand-fold,  and  exert  a  con- 
trolling influence  even  on  succeeding  ages.  His- 
tory has,  in  the  outward  reality  of  its  events,  an 
objective  reason,  which  gives  it  a  certain  unity  and 
order.  This  inherent  reason  of  history  is  a  subject 
for  the  apprehension  of  the  human  reason,  and  its 
conception  discloses  the  real  significance  and  im- 
portance of  history.  Finally,  man  in  history,  as  in 
himself,  is  moral;  whence  human  history  is,  above 
all  things,  profoundly  moral. 

ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

Ancient  history  takes  its  beginnings  and  goes 
through  its  first  stages  in  Asia  and  Africa,  pro- 


HISTORY.  25 

ceeding  thence  to  Europe,  where  it  finds  its  full 
development.  Marked  with  national  diversities, 
it  is  a  progress  from  nation  to  nation  and  from 
period  to  period.  In  its  first  stages  in  Asia  it  is 
remote  from  modern  history,  having  no  direct  con- 
nection with  and  little  likeness  to  it;  but  in  its 
distinct,  full,  and  strong  development  in  Greece  and 
Rome  it  furnishes  the  basis  for  modern  civilization, 
together  with  many  of  its  chief  elements. 

Its  general  characteristics  are  despotism  in  gov- 
ernment, together  with  the  tyranny  and  force,  and 
also  the  unity,  accompanying  it ;  wars  of  conquest, 
and  the  slavery  and  degradation  of  the  masses; 
with  the  emergence  in  Greece  of  freedom,  and  a 
wonderful  development  of  the  human  mind ;  and  in 
Rome  of  law  and  justice,  and  the  embodiment  of 
organized  power  and  unity,  which  not  only  gave  it 
the  foremost  place  in  ancient  history,  but  made  its 
influence  on  modern  history  of  the  first  importance. 
Ancient  history  came  to  an  end  because  its  national 
civilizations  were  not  in  their  nature  enduring. 

GREECE  AND  ROME. 

1.  Has  Greece  contributed  more  to  the  civilization  of  the 

world  than  Rome  ? 

2.  Has  Rome  been  really  a  greater  power  in  the  world  than 

Greece  ? 

Greece  and  Rome  are  the  two  great  nations,  not  only  of 
antiquity,  but  of  all  history.  Not  their  fame  alone,  but 
their  influence  is  enduring. 

Greece  ran  a  career  as  brilliant  as  it  was  brief;  Rome 
had  a  slow,  steady,  and  long  growth  to  maturity,  followed 
by  a  corresponding  decline.  They  afford  in  all  points  a 
striking  contrast.  If  Greece  is  in  herself  more  original, 
Rome,  the  conqueror  of  the  world,  appropriates  all  things. 


26        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Greece  is  the  enigma  of  Providence.  How  she  came  to 
be  what  she  was,  does  not  appear  from  her  history.  It 
was,  indeed,  her  great  men  that  made  her  great;  but 
whence  their  greatness?  Her  statesmen,  generals,  orators, 
philosophers,  poets,  and  artists  all  exhibit  genius  of  the 
first  order,  the  lustre  of  which  is  not  dimmed  by  the  lapse 
of  ages.  Her  spirit  is  that  of  youth,  buoyant  and  inspiring. 
The  influence  of  Greece  is  that  of  genius,  of  an  extraordi- 
nary manifestation  of  mind  in  its  creative  productiveness. 
Her  lasting  monuments,  in  which  her  spirit  lives  and  shines, 
are  her  expressive  language,  her  works  of  literature  and 
of  art,  her  systems  of  philosophy,  and  the  history  of  her 
achievements. 

In  history  Rome  occupies  a  much  larger  place ;  indeed, 
she  is  in  herself  of  grander  proportions.  Her  history  is 
marked  by  a  sure  growth  to  greatness  and  to  power.  If 
less  ideal  than  Greece,  she  is  more  practical ;  if  less  ver- 
satile, she  is  more  stable.  In  all  her  history  she  is  con- 
tinually gaining,  and  her  gains  add  to  her  power  and  glory. 
Mighty  and  victorious  in  war,  she  grows  to  a  vast  empire. 
Her  wisdom  is  in  her  laws  and  their  administration.  Into 
her  bosom,  as  into  a  vast  receptacle,  flows  whatever  con- 
stitutes the  riches  and  wisdom  of  the  ancient  world.  Rot- 
ten with  corruption  she  falls,  and  her  ruin  is  the  enrichment 
of  the  nations  that  follow. 

Her  language  continued  long  in  use ;  is  the  parent  of 
several  important  modern  languages,  and  has  contributed 
largely  to  others ;  and  is  ranked,  together  with  the  litera- 
ture of  which  it  is  the  expression,  as  the  twin  of  Greek,  and 
among  the  most  important  studies  of  the  higher  education. 

Greece,  by  her  philosophy,  literature,  and  art,  has  pro- 
foundly affected  modern  thought  and  sentiment ;  but  in  the 
influence  of  law  and  government  Rome  is  supreme. 

The  references  have  respect  to  the  law  and  government, 
the  language  and  literature,  and  the  philosophy  and  art,  of 
both  nations. 


HISTORY.  27 

GREECE. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  3,  sec.  2-7,  pp.  64- 

72. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  pp.  34~37- 
Brown:  i.  Greek  Classical  Lit.,  Pref. 

2.  Rom.  Lit.,  pp.  33-37. 
Bulwer's  Athens,    Bk.   I,    Chap.  8;    Bk.   3,  Chap.  2;    Bk.   5, 

Chap.  4. 

Butler's  An.  Philos.  (Am.  ed.),  1.  257;  2.  7-17. 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  5-7. 
Dwight's  Mod.  Philology,  1.  61. 
Felton's  An.  and  Mod.  Greece,  1.  289-309,  473~492,  493~498  5 

2.  3-17,  77-no,  120-145.  219-246. 
Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Chap.  5. 
Freeman  :  i.  Outlines  of  Hist.,  Chap.  2,  sec.  26,  p.  47. 

2.  Historical  Essays,  2.  107;  3.  278-280. 

3.  Comparative  Politics,  Lect.  2. 

4.  Unity  of  Hist.  (Lond.,  1872),  pp.  21-36. 
Guyot's  Earth  and  Man,  pp.  306-309. 

Heeren's  Historical  Researches;  An.  Greece,  Chap.  9-15. 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  Chap.  8. 

Lotze's   Microcosmus,   trans.,   3d.  ed.    (N.  Y.,   1888),  Bk.  7, 

Chap.  5,  sec.  3 ;  Bk.  8,  Chap.  3,  sec.  3;  Chap.  5,  sec.  2. 
Lubke's  Hist,  of  Art,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  i. 
Mahaffy's  Social  Life  in  Greece,  Chap,  i,  Introd. 
Maine's  An.  Law,  Introd.,  pp.  22,  23,  48-55. 
May's  Democracy  in  Europe,  1.  43-44. 
Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans,  2.  417-421. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Ch.  '90),  1.  286-292;   2.  241-255, 

341-348,  412-419. 

Muller's  Sci.  of  Lang.,  1.  88-112;  2.  403-404. 
Ranke's  Univeral  Hist. ;  An.  Nations  and  Greece,  Chap.  8. 
Schlegel's  Hist,  of  Lit,  Lect.  1-4. 
Smith's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.,  Bost,  1855),  Chap.  5, 

13,  14,  21,  34,  35,  47,  48. 

Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  1.  14,  429-432  ;  2.  5,  6. 
Winckelmann's  Hist,  of  An.  Art,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  i. 
'Am.  Presb.  R.,  1.  259  (Gr.  Lang.). 
Blackw.,  116.  599-600. 
New  Eng.,  24.  84-86,  420-424,  435~442. 


28         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


ROME. 

Amos's  Sci.  of  Law  (Internat.  Scient.  S.),  pp.  9,  10. 
Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  3,  sec.  8-14,  pp  73-84. 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Chap.  21. 

Burckhardt's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  trans.,  V.  i,  Chap.  7,  9,  10. 
Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.   (Ox.,   1885),  Bk.   i, 

Chap.  3,  pp.  37-38. 

Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  115. 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  8. 
Duruy's    Hist,  of   Rome,  trans.    (Bost ,    1883),  v-  8>  Sec.  2, 

Chap.    1 10,   Gen.     Summary,    esp.    Pt.    12,   pp.   378-382. 

Results  of  the  Roman  Dominion. 
Dwight's  Mod.  Philology,  1.  82-94. 
Fisher:  i.  Outlines  of  Universal  Hist.,  p.  124. 
2.  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Chap.  2. 
Freeman:  i.  Historical  Essays,  2.  234-239. 

2.  Comparative  Politics,  Lect.  2. 

3.  Unity  of  History  (Lond.,  1872),  pp.  36-47. 
Gibbon's  Rome,  Chap.  44  (Roman  Law). 

Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  Lect  2. 

Guyot's  Earth  and  Man,  pp.  309-310. 

Hadley's  Introd.  to  Roman  Law,  esp.  Lect.  2. 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  Chap.  5-9. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1888),  Bk.  7,  Chap.  5.  sec. 

4;  Bk.  8,  Chap.  3,  sec.  4,  Chap.  5,  sec.  3. 
Lubke's  Hist,  of  Art,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  3. 
Maine's  Ancient  Law,  Introd.,  pp.  27-31. 
Mommsen's  Hist,  of  Rome,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  14;  Bk.  4,  Chap.  12, 

13;  Bk.  5,  Chap.  12. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Ch.  '90),  1.  491-493 ;    2.  255-257, 

348,  349. 

Muller's  Sci.  of  Lang.,  2.  266-267. 
Ritter's  An.  Philos.,  V.  4,  Bk.  12,  Chap.  2,  3. 
Schlegel's  Hist,  of  Lit.,  Lect.  3,  4. 
Simcox's  Introd.  to  Lat.  Lit. 
Symonds's   Renaissance   in   Italy,  V.  4  (Italian   Lit.,  V.    i), 

pp.  28-32. 
Whitney  :  1.  Lang,  and  the  Study  of  Lang.,  pp.  165-169. 

2.  Life  and  Growth  of  Lang.,  pp.  116,  185. 
Winckelmann's  Hist,  of  An.  Art,  Bk.  8,  Chap.  4. 
Blackw.,  93.  314;  116.  599  (Rom.  Law). 
New  Eng.,  24.  81-84,  93>  W-42O,  423  5  31.  i- 
No.  Brit.,  44.  249  (The  Roman  Element  in  Civilization).    Same, 

Eel.  M.,  67.  257. 


HISTORY.  39 

ENGLAND   AND   ROME. 

3.   Has  England  been  as  great  a  power  in  modern  times  as 
Rome  was  in  ancient  times  ? 

No  single  nation  can  ever  again  be  to  the  world  what 
Rome  has  been.  No  nation  can  ever  be,  as  she  was,  "  mis- 
tress of  the  world."  The  Roman  Empire  was,  practically, 
the  world  of  its  time  ;  whatever  was  outside  of  it  was  out  of 
relation  to  it,  so  as  scarce  to  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
historic  world.  But  now,  while  all  lands  have  been  explored 
and  brought  into  mutual  relation,  the  wide  extent  of  terri- 
tory  and  the  complicated  interests  render  any  organic  union 
impracticable. 

Nevertheless,  so  far  as  there  may  be  a  correspondence  of 
any  modern  nation  with  ancient  Rome,  it  will  be  found  in 
England.  England  is  the  great  leading  nation  of  the  mod- 
ern world.  In  a  simple  comparison  of  the  two  as  nations, 
she  far  surpasses  Rome  in  almost  every  respect.  Counting 
all  her  possessions,  she  surpasses  her  in  extent  of  territory, 
population,  and  wealth ;  and,  besides  these,  in  commerce 
and  manufactures,  in  material  resources,  and  in  intellectual 
and  moral  power  and  influence.  Such  a  superiority  she 
must  indeed  have,  in  order  that  her  relative  position  in 
the  world  may  be  at  all  comparable  to  that  of  Rome.  In 
other  words,  her  superiority  to  Rome  must  correspond  to 
the  superiority  of  the  modern  over  the  ancient  world.  Of 
all  nations  she  unquestionably  best  represents  the  modern 
world. 

Like  Rome,  she  has  had  a  slow  and  steady  growth ;  but, 
unlike  Rome,  this  growth  has  resulted  in  a  free  and  repre- 
sentative government,  possessing  all  the  essential  elements 
both  of  stability  and  of  progress,  thus  insuring  her  a  long 
and  prosperous  future. 

ENGLAND. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3,  Chap.  51,  52. 

India. 
Dilke's  Problems  of  Greater  Britain. 


30        REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8.  215,  England:  Geog.  and  Statistics.  3.  103, 
Australia.  4.  765,  Canada.  12.  731,  India. 

Escott's  England. 

Mackenzie's  Nineteenth  Century,  Bk.  2. 

Seeley's  Expansion  of  England. 

Ward's  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Contemp.,  34.  i.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  140. 131.  Same,  Eel.  Mag., 
92.  129.  Contemp.,  40.  818,  877. 

Fortn.,  29.  384;  42.  421.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  163.  323. 

Macmil.,  46.  456.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  155.  259. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  1.  185  (Froude). 

Westm.,  94.  47.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  106.  387. 

ROME. 

Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Chap.  2. 

Gibbon's  Rome,  V.  i,  Chap.  1-3. 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  Chap,  i,  2. 

Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans,  V.  3,  Chap.  32;  V.  4,  Chap. 

39-41.' 
Montesquieu's  Grandeur  and  Decadence  of  the  Romans,  trans. 

with  notes  by  J.  Baker. 
Brit.  Q.,  54.  I. 
Contemp.,  32.  321.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  137.  643. 


MARATHON   AND    WATERLOO. 

4.    Was  the  battle  of  Marathon  more  important  in  its  results 
than  the  battle  of  Waterloo  ? 

Certain  great  battles  are  lofty  peaks,  whence  history  may 
be  viewed  both  before  and  after.  They  are  points  at  which 
history  takes  a  turn,  and  there  begins  a  new  era  of  progress. 

Battles  may  be  called  great  as  considered  either  in  them- 
selves or  in  their  consequences.  Tried  by  the  first  test, 
Waterloo  may  be  thought  a  greater  battle  than  Marathon ; 
but  tried  by  the  second  test,  Marathon  may  surpass  it. 

MARATHON. 

At  Marathon  valor  was  pitted  against  numbers,  and  won. 

Persia  was  Asia ;  Greece  stood  for  Europe.     This  battle 

was,  therefore,  a  deadly  conflict  between  despotism  on  the 


HISTORY.  31 

one  hand,  and  freedom  and  progress  on  the  other.  It  was 
not,  indeed,  the  final  decision  of  this  momentous  contest, 
but  it  showed  what  it  would  be.  Hence  the  future,  not 
only  of  Greece,  but  of  Europe  itself,  with  its  civilization 
and  progress,  was  dependent  on  it.  Certain  it  is  that  it 
had  an  important  relation  to  and  influence  upon  subsequent 
European  history. 

Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  790. 

Bulwer's  Athens,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  5. 

Cox:  i.  Gen.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  p.  152. 

2.  Greeks  and  Persians  (Epochs  of  Hist.  S.),  pp.  127-131. 
Creasy 's  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  Chap.  I. 
Curtius's  Hist,  of  Greece,  2.  244-251. 
Fisher's  Outlines  of  Universal  Hist.,  p.  93. 
Crete's  History  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  341-359. 
Harrison's  Story  of  Greece  (Story  of  the  Nations  S.),  Chap.  26. 
Niebuhr's  Lectures  on  An.  Hist.,  V.  I,  Lect.  36. 
Rawlinson's    Herodotus,  V.  3,  Bk.  6,  sec.  102-117;   App.   to 

Bk.  6,  Ess.  i 

P.  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World  (N.  Y.),  1.  386-398. 
William  Smith's  History  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.),  pp.  164-166. 
Thirlwall's  History  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Chap.  14, 

pp.  245-247. 
Quar.,  86.  399-404  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  216-219). 

WATERLOO. 

In  the  issue  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo  all  Europe  had  a 
vital  interest ;  for  Napoleon,  by  the  overpowering  ascen- 
dency won  by  his  great  genius,  became  the  deadly  foe  of 
all  the  countries  of  Europe  save  his  own,  —  if  he  was  not 
even  hers.  Hurled  from  his  height  and  driven  into  exile, 
he  returned  to  make  a  desperate  attempt  to  regain  his  lost 
power.  All  Europe  rose  in  arms  to  foil  the  ambitious  de- 
signs of  one  who  had  proved  himself  as  unscrupulous  as  he 
was  mighty,  and  to  maintain  their  own  independence  and 
national  existence  by  resisting  and  crushing  the  aggressor. 

Napoleon  staked  all  on  this  one  battle,  and  in  its  loss  lost 
all.  Thus  was  brought  to  a  full  end  the  career  of  a  man 
who,  by  his  desolating  wars,  had  been  the  scourge  of  Eu- 


32        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

rope,  and  who  while  in  power  was  the  constant  menace  of 
her  liberties  and  of  her  welfare. 

Abbott's  Hist,  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  V.  2,  Chap.  27.    Same, 

Harper,  9.  590-603. 
Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.4,  Chap.  77,  pp.  532- 

540,  547-550. 

Creasy's  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World,  Chap.  15. 
Gardner's  Quatre  Bras,  Ligny,  and  Waterloo. 
Hazlitt's  Life  of  Napoleon,  V.  3,  Chap.  56. 
Mackenzie's  Nineteenth  Century  (Chicago,  1881),  Bk.  I,  Chap. 

2,  pp.  62-67. 
Martin's  Pop.   Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  V.  2,  Chap.  19,  pp. 

528-546. 

Mathews's  Great  Conversers,  p.  272. 
Maxwell's  Life  of  Wellington  (Lond.),  V.  3,  Chap.  31-32.    See 

also  App.,  pp.  535-554,  55^-576. 
Seeley's  Napoleon  the  First,  pp.  219-227.    Same,  Encyc.  Brit., 

17.  224-225. 

Thiers's  Consulate  and  Empire  (Philad.),  V.  5,  Bk.  60. 
White's  Hist,  of  France  (N.  Y.,  1882),  pp.  526-528. 


ALEXANDER   AND   OESAR. 

5.  Was  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great  more  influential  on 
contemporaneous  and  subsequent  history  than  the  life 
of  Julius  Cccsar? 

In  the  list  of  the  world's  great  men  Alexander  and  Caesar 
must  be  counted  among  the  first.  They  must  be  considered 
not  merely  as  individuals,  but  as  historical  characters  in  the 
largest  sense.  They  make  the  history  of  their  time,  effect- 
ing changes  so  important  as  to  produce  a  profound  influ- 
ence on  the  future,  in  respect  both  to  the  chain  of  events 
and  the  character  of  institutions. 

Of  the  two,  Alexander  is  the  more  striking  in  his  career, 
and  the  history  of  his  time  is  more  completely  identified 
with  him  as  its  creator.  Nevertheless,  Caesar  may  not  only 
be  compared  with  him  as  a  general,  but  be  thought  to  sur- 
pass him  as  a  statesman.  Both  were  suddenly  cut  off  in 
the  midst  of  their  career,  —  the  one  in  early  manhood,  the 
other  in  the  full  vigor  of  his  maturity. 


HISTORY.  33 

ALEXANDER. 

Alexander,  when  we  consider  the  rapidity,  extent,  num- 
ber, and  importance  of  his  conquests,  must  be  regarded  as 
the  greatest  prodigy  of  history.  No  other  man  has  accom- 
plished results  so  many,  astounding,  and  important  in  so 
brief  a  period. 

His  opportunity  was  indeed  great,  but  not  greater  than 
his  genius  to  see  and  to  grasp  it.  His  career  presents  a 
wonderful  co-operation  of  the  highest  genius  with  favoring 
circumstances ;  but  the  genius  is  the  positive,  active,  and 
creative  factor,  and  the  circumstances,  in  comparison,  but 
passive.  In  other  words,  the  Persian  Empire  was  ready  for 
an  Alexander  to  overturn  it,  the  world  for  him  to  conquer  it. 

But  Alexander  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  mere  con- 
queror. He  aimed  at  great  and  manifold  results ;  yet  the 
final  result,  however  different  from  his  aim,  really  far  ex- 
ceeded it.  He  opened  up  Asia  to  Greece,  and  planted  in 
it  her  civilization.  The  wide  prevalence  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage afterward  proved  an  important  preparation  for  the 
general  spread  of  Christianity.  He  brought  the  East  and 
the  West  together,  and  was  thus  the  first  to  prepare  the  way 
for  their  ultimate  unity.  In  him  the  West  conquered  the 
East;  and  though  his  world-empire  was  a  failure,  results 
more  important  than  this  were  realized.  His  was  not  a 
national,  but  a  universal  mind.  His  genius  was  as  great 
as  his  sphere ;  and  though  he  left  his  work  incomplete, 
it  was  of  the  first  importance  in  its  place  in  the  history 
of  the  world. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  3,  sec.  7,  p.  72. 
Arnold's  Hist,  of  Rome  (N.  YM  1856),  Chap.  30,  pp.  275-277. 
Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  105. 
Curteis's  Rise  of  the  Macedonian  Empire  (Epoch  of  Hist.  S.), 

Chap.  8-15,  esp.  pp.  210-215. 
Dodge:  i.   Great  Captains  (Bost.,  1889),  Lect.  i. 

2.   Alexander,  Great  Captains  S.,  (Bost.,  1890). 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  127-130. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  1.  480. 
Felton's  An.  and  Mod.  Greece,  2.  275-276. 

3 


34         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Finlay's  Greece  under  the  Romans,  Chap,  i . 
Fisher:  i.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  pp.  113-116. 

2.  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  pp.  56-57. 
Freeman's  Historical  Essays,  2.  161  (Rev.  of  Grote).     Same, 

Ed.  R.,  105.  205  (Am.  ed.,  p.  150). 
Crete's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  12,  Chap.  91-94,  esp. 

PP-  49-53.  257-274  (Depreciates).     Rev.  in  Nat.  R.,  3.  50. 
Heeren's  Man.  of  An.  Hist.,  pp.  173-178. 
Humboldt's   Cosmos  (Harper's  ed.,  1851),  V.  2,  Pt.  2,  sec.  2, 

pp.  153-169  (Scientific  Results). 
Mahaffy:  i.  Gr.  Life  and  Thought  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1887), 

Chap.  2. 

2.  Story  of  Alexander's  Empire  (Story  of  the  Na- 
tions S.),  esp.  Chap.  i. 
Martineau's  Studies  in  Religion,  2.  124-125. 
Niebuhr's  Lect.  on  An.  Hist.,  Lect.  74-80  (Depreciates). 
Plutarch's  Lives :  Life  of  Alexander. 
Ranke's  Univ.  Hist.  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Chap.  10,  p.  393,  esp. 

pp.  437-441. 

Rollin's  An.  Hist.,  Bk.  15,  esp.  sec.  19. 
Schaff's  Ch.  Hist.,  old  ed.,  1.  45-47;    new  ed.,  V.  i,  sec.  12, 

pp.  76-79. 

P.  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World,  V,  2,  Chap.  16,  esp.  pp.  80-81. 
William  Smith :  i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  119. 

2.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.),  Chap.  44. 
Thirlwnll's  Hist,  of  Greece,  Chap.  47-55. 
Fraser,  91.  667.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  3. 
Quar.,  149,  125  (The  Successors  of  Alex.,  and  Gr.  Civilization 

in  the  East). 

OESAR. 

Caesar  is  a  Roman  of  Romans.  As  Rome  was  the  great- 
est nation  of  antiquity,  so  was  he  the  greatest  Roman.  In 
him  lay  Rome  as  it  was  to  be.  It  was  his  large  and  far- 
reaching  thought  which,  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  Republic, 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  mighty  Empire.  He  was  the 
sagacious  architect  who  conceived  the  plan ;  his  successors 
were  but  the  builders.  The  largeness,  the  unity,  and  the 
power  of  Rome  were  in  the  Empire ;  and  it  was  in  this 
that  she  attained  the  height  of  her  influence  on  the  future. 
The  debt  of  succeeding  ages  to  Rome  is,  therefore,  in  large 
part,  a  debt  also  to  Caesar. 


HISTORY.  35 

And  the  man  was  fitted  for  his  work.  There  was  in  him 
a  completeness  rare  even  in  great  men.  In  whatever  he 
undertook  he  was  great.  His  greatness  was  indeed  mani- 
fested chiefly  as  general  and  statesman ;  yet  as  orator  and 
writer  he  was  among  the  first.  But  it  is  as  warrior  and 
statesman  that  he  was  the  personal  embodiment  and  repre- 
sentative of  Rome ;  for  Rome  attained  her  greatness  and 
power  by  war,  and  her  wisdom  is  most  conspicuous  in  her 
laws.  Caesar,  then,  was  the  first  creative  spirit  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire  ;  and  the  Roman  Empire  was  the  embodiment 
of  the  ancient  world,  and  joined  on  and  contributed  most 
to  the  modern  world. 

Anthem's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  281. 

De  Quincey's  The  Caesars,  Chap.  I.    Same,  Blackw.,  32.  551. 

Duruy's  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.  (Host,  1883),  V.  3,  sec.  2,  p.  546 
(Estimate  of  Caesar's  Policy) ;  also,  V.  8,  sec.  2,  p.  356. 

Dodge:  i.  Great  Captains  (Bost.,  1889),  Lect.  3. 
2.  Caesar  (Great  Captains  S.). 

Encyc.  Brit.,  4.  633. 

Fisher:  i.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  pp.  164-166. 

2.  Beginnings  of   Christianity,  Chap.  2  (The  Roman 
Empire  a  Preparation  for  Christianity). 

Froude's  Caesar. 

Fowler's  Julius  Caesar  and  the  Foundation  of  the  Roman  Im- 
perial System.     Heroes  of  the  Nations,  V.  6  (N.  Y.,  1892). 

Gibbon's  Rome,  Chap.  1-3  (Extent,  Union,  Constitution,  etc.  of 
the  Roman  Empire). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  386. 

Liddell's  Hist,  of  Rome,  Chap.  64-68. 

Long's   Decline  of  the  Roman   Republic,  V.  3-5,  esp.  V.  5, 
Chap.  35. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  V.  i,  Lect  4. 

Merivale:  i.  Gen.  Hist  of  Rome,  Chap.  40-47. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,  V.  i,  2j 

esp.  2.  388-394. 

3.  Roman  Triumvirates  (Epoch  of  Hist  S.),  Chap. 

4-S,  esp.  pp.  175-178. 

Mommsen's  Hist,  of  Rome,  V.  4,  esp.  Chap.  1 1. 
Montaigne's  Essays,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  34. 
Niebuhr's  Lect  on  the  Hist,  of  Rome,  Lect.  105-111. 
Plutarch's  Lives  :  Life  of  Caesar. 


36         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

SchafFs  Ch.  Hist,  old  ed.,  V.  i,  pp.  47-49;  new  ed->  V.  I,  sec.  12, 

pp.  79-85- 

Seeley's  Rom.  Imperialism,  Chap.  i. 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  539. 
Fraser,  76.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  94,  387. 
Nation,  29.  161. 
Quar.,  148.  453  (Am.  ed.,  p.  239). 


MEDLEVAL   HISTORY. 

Mediaeval  history  marks  the  period  of  transition 
from  ancient  to  modern  history.  Hence,  following 
the  breaking  up  of  the  old  civilization,  it  implies  the 
process  of  fusing  together  the  elements  of  the  new. 
These  elements  comprise  the  permanent  principles  of 
the  ancient  civilization,  which  were  embodied  in  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  which  survived  its  fall;  Chris- 
tianity as  a  religious  system  and  spiritual  power, 
embodied  in  the  Church ;  and  the  new  principles  of 
freedom  and  of  progress  added  by  the  Northern 
nations. 

Opposing  tendencies  coming  together  produced 
conflict,  from  which  issued  assimilation  and  ultimate 
union.  Thus  met  barbarism  and  civilization ;  while 
the  sovereignty  of  the  State  found  its  rival  and  foe 
in  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Church. 

It  was  a  time  of  intellectual  and  moral  darkness,  of 
violence  and  disorder.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  a 
time  when  religion  was  strong  and  influential,  and 
took  peculiar  forms,  suited  to  the  age. 

The  subjects  which  follow,  Feudalism,  Monasti- 
cism,  the  Papacy,  the  Crusades,  and  Chivalry,  in- 
clude, in  general,  its  peculiar  and  most  striking 
characteristics. 


HISTORY. 


FEUDALISM. 


37 


6.   Has  the  Feudal  System  been  productive  of  more  good 
than  evil? 

Feudalism  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Pertaining  to  the  constitution  of  society 
and  to  political  relations,  its  influence  is  comprehensive  and 
profound.  Transitional  in  its  nature,  it  is  in  this  suited  to 
the  character  of  the  age. 

Considered  in  itself,  it  seems  like  a  retrograde  movement, 
yet  it  is  really  an  advance  on  the  imperial  domination  of 
Rome;  an  advance  in  that  individuality,  with  personal 
freedom  and  rights,  finds  place.  But  individuality  became 
extreme,  and  operated  against  the  unity  and  order  implied 
in  a  general  government  with  its  supreme  authority. 

Imperialism  reduced  society  to  a  dead  level,  suppressing 
freedom  ;  while  Feudalism  was  a  system  of  caste,  with  the 
chief  power  vested  in  an  aristocracy,  and  at  the  same  time 
with  a  freedom  bordering  on  anarchy.  Yet  in  this  way  in- 
dividuality and  freedom  were  conserved,  and  have  come  to 
have  a  necessary  place  in  modem  society  and  in  constitu- 
tional government. 

Feudalism,  then,  was  a  temporary  system,  which  sprung 
naturally  from,  and  was  adapted  to,  the  spirit  and  exigencies 
of  the  times.  It  was  a  step  out  of  anarchy  toward  order, 
but  was  unable,  from  its  very  nature,  either  to  suppress  the 
one  or  to  secure  the  other.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  it  afforded 
some  degree  of  protection  to  the  weak,  on  the  other  it  gave 
them  no  certain  security  against  oppression.  It  marks  a 
rude  stage  of  development  in  the  passage  from  the  old  to 
the  new. 

Abdy's    Feudalism:    its    Rise,   Progress,   and    Consequences 

(Lond.,  1890). 
Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  6,  sec.  1-15,  pp.  175- 

200,  esp.  sec.  12,  pp.  194-195. 
Ap  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  159. 
Bell's  Historical  Sketches  of  Feudalism  (Lond.,  1852). 


38        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  i,  Chap.  8,  9. 

Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  pp.  123-127. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.   (Ox.,   1885),  Bk.  6, 

Chap.  12,  pp.  357-362  (Feudal  Monarchy). 
Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  9.  520;   9th  ed.,  9.  119,  929.     See  also 

Gen.  Index. 
Emerton's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Bost., 

1891),  Chap.  15. 

Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  255-258. 
Guizot:  i.  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lect.  4. 

2.  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  France  (N.  Y.,  1855),  V.  3, 

4,  2d  Course,  Lect.  i-n. 

3.  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  V.  i,  Chap.  13. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  Chap.  2,  esp.  last  part  of  the  chapter. 
Hegel's  Philos.  of  Hist.,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.),  pp.  384-388. 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  2.  77. 

Lacroix's  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  I. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  2,  Lect.  21. 
Maine:  i.  Ancient  Law.     See  Index. 

2.  Early  Hist,  of  Institutions.     See  Index. 

3.  Village  Communities,  Lect.  5. 
Maurice's  Friendship  of  Books,   pp.  144-146. 
Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  the  Laws,  trans.  (Cin.,  1873),  V.   2, 

Bk.  30,  31. 

Charles  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  1.  188-194. 
Pearson's  Hist,  of  Eng.  during  the  Middle  Ages,  V.  i,  Chap.  34. 
Penny  Cyc.,  10.  243.     Same,  Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  174. 
Pomeroy's  Introd.  to  Municipal  Law  (N.  Y.,  1864),  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2. 
Robertson's  Charles  V.,  Introd.,  sec.  i.     See  Index. 
Stilld's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  Chap.  5,  pp.  135-150. 
Stubbs's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1.  3-4,  250-257,  259-260, 

265-268,  328. 

Woolsey's  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  528-535. 
Unit  R.,  28.  I. 


MONASTICISM. 
7.   Has  Monasticism  been  the  cause  of  more  good  than  evil? 

Of  the  distinctive  phenomena  of  the  Middle  Ages,  perhaps 
the  most  notable  is  Monasticism.  As  a  phenomenon  of 
human  nature  it  had,  indeed,  already  appeared  in  other 
religions ;  but,  from  its  general  prevalence  and  influence,  it 


HISTORY.  39 

now  took  an  important  place  in  history.  It  was  a  reaction 
from  the  prevalent  social  corruption,  and  an  important  phase 
of  mediaeval  Christianity.  Its  cardinal  principle  was  asceti- 
cism. This  in  some  cases  was  extreme  and  abnormal,  and 
was  more  Pagan  than  Christian ;  while  in  others  it  was  the 
true  Christian  spirit  of  heroic  sacrifice  and  self-denying  love. 
Monasticism,  therefore,  was  large  and  manifold,  and  was  in- 
spired by  the  intensest  spirit  and  life  of  religion.  Hence  it 
had  an  enduring  vitality,  and  was  ever  reappearing  in  new 
forms.  It  cannot  be  fairly  judged  by  any  single,  much  less 
by  any  narrow  test.  It  must  be  judged  in  accordance  with 
the  ideas,  the  religion,  and  the  general  condition  of  its  time. 
The  separation  from  the  world  implied  in  it  could  not  in 
fact  be  absolute.  It  was  a  spiritual  movement  within  the 
Church,  and  bore  a  like  relation  to  the  world.  In  retire- 
ment, as  in  the  world,  human  nature  had  its  various  manifes- 
tations. The  many  were  mediocre,  a  few  were  conspicuous 
for  talent.  Many  were  pious,  devoted,  and  charitable ;  but 
some  were  most  unworthy  of  their  profession.  Even  in 
goodness  there  were  many  degrees,  according  to  individual 
capacity  and  effort,  from  the  common  to  the  extraordinary. 

It  must  be  considered  how  far  it  was  unnatural  and 
unwholesome,  especially  in  its  practical  antagonism  to  the 
family  relation.  On  the  other  hand,  its  good  works  and 
beneficent  influence  must  not  fail  of  due  appreciation. 

How  much  did  it  aid,  and  how  much  corrupt  morals? 
What  was  its  influence  on  piety?  What  service  did  it 
render  to  learning,  literature,  science,  art,  philosophy? 
How  much  did  its  corruption  vitiate  it,  and  overshadow 
its  good  ?  It  is  many-sided,  and  should  be  estimated  from 
many  points  of  view. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  V.  2,  sec.  239-250,  pp.  681-727.     See  also 

Index. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11.  728. 
Barnum's  Romanism  as  it  is,  Chap.  8. 
Clarke's  Events  and  Epochs  in  Rel.  Hist.,  Chap.  4. 
Miss   Cleveland's  George  Eliot's   Poetry  and   Other  Studies, 

p.  127. 


40       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Emerton's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Bost 

1891),  Chap.  n. 
Encyc.  Brit,  16.  698. 

Gibbon's  Rome  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3,  Chap.  37. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  462,  466-468. 
Kingsley:  I.  The  Roman  and  Teuton,  Lect.  8,  9. 

2.  The  Hermits,  esp.  the  Introd. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  2.  108-249. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  2,  Lect.  17. 
Macaulay's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  6. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  453-459,  464-478. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  2.  15-38,  206-208;  4.  155- 

167,  179-196;  5.232-275. 
Montalembert's  Monks  of  the  West,  trans.  (Eng.  ed.,  7  vols., 

Am.  ed.,  first  five  vols.  in  2),  esp.  Introd.  and  Bk.  14,  18. 
Neander's  Ch.  Hist.,  V.  2,  sec.  3,  pp.  227-277. 
Schaff's  Ch.  Hist.,  old  ed.,  V.  2,  Chap.  4.     Of  this,  pp.  147-179, 

226-238,  the  same  will  be  found,  in  substance,  in  Bib.  Sac., 

21.  384-424.     New  ed.,  V.  2,  Chap.  2 ;  V.  3,  Chap.  4. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1551. 

Still's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  Chap.  12,  pp.  332-346. 
Stubbs's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  England,  1.  222-223. 
Isaac  Taylor:  i.  Ancient  Christianity. 

2.  Nat.  Hist,  of  Enthusiasm,  sec.  8,  9. 

3.  Fanaticism,  sec.  5. 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist.,  Lect.  8,  16. 

Uhlhorn's  Chr.  Charity  in  the  An.  Ch.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  5. 

Bib.  Sac.,  1.  309,  464,  632. 

Blackw.,  89.  665. 

Brit.  Q.,  48.  201. 

Chr.  Exam.,  71.  400. 

Chr.  R.,  7.  73  ;  27.  44. 

Ed.  R.,  114.  318  (Am.  ed.,  p.  162)  ;  127.  397  (Am.  ed.,  p.  203). 

No.  Brit.,  48.  163. 

Quar.,  110.  35. 

THE   CRUSADES. 
8.  Did  the  Crusades  result  in  greater  good  than  evil? 

In  their  causes  and  general  character  the  Crusades  are  a 
reflection  of  the  Middle  Ages,  while  in  their  influence  and 
results  they  show  a  great  and  manifold  progress  toward  the 


HISTORY.  4I 

modern  era.  Hence  their  special  significance  consists  not 
so  much  in  what  they  are  in  themselves  as  in  what  grew 
out  of  them.  They  form  a  series  of  religious  wars,  in  which 
the  West  assails  the  East,  Mediaeval  Christianity  fights  Mo- 
hammedanism. They  constitute  a  great  popular  religious 
movement,  itself  not  the  highest,  and  still  further  corrupted 
by  the  intermingling  of  many  baser  elements.  The  chief 
significance  of  this  movement,  intense  and  profound,  is 
found  in  its  universality  and  unity.  It  aroused,  united,  and 
concentrated  all  Europe ;  and  it  produced  a  general  activ- 
ity, from  which  proceeded  a  quickened  development  of  all 
human  interests. 

Considered  in  themselves  and  in  their  immediate  results, 
and  judged  by  the  modern  standard,  the  Crusades  cannot 
be  justified.  They  appear,  in  their  motive,  as  irrational ;  in 
their  course,  as  marked  with  untold  suffering  and  loss  of 
life ;  and  in  their  end,  as  a  failure.  And  it  may  be  at  least 
a  serious  question  whether,  by  many  writers,  too  much  has 
not  been  attributed  to  their  influence  for  the  production  of 
the  good  which  followed  them. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  2.  610-611. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  7,  sec.  11-20,  pp. 

235-255. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  5.  527. 
Cox's  Crusades  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.). 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  240-243. 
Dutton's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades  (Lond.,  1877). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  7.  524;  Qth  ed.,  6.  622. 
Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  284-285. 
Gibbon's  Rome  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  5,  Chap.  58 ;  V.  6,  Chap.  59, 

and  Chap.  61,  pp.  127-131. 
Gray's  The  Children's  Crusades  (Bost.,  1882). 
Guizot :  i.  Hist,  of  Civilization,  Lect.  8. 

2.  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  V.  1,2,  Chap.  16,  17. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  Chap,  i,  Pt.  i.     See  also  Index. 
Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  226-232. 
James's  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades. 
Keightley's  The  Crusades  (Lond.,  1847). 
Lacroix's  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  104. 


42         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  710. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  2,  Lect.  22. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  2.  593. 

Michaud's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades,  esp.  Bk.  18. 

Mills's  Crusades,  esp.  Chap.  18. 

Milman's  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  4,  Bk.  7,  Chap.  6. 

Proctor's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades  (Philad.,  1854). 

Robertson's  Charles  V.,  Introd.,  sec.  i,  i.     See  Index. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  576. 

Stephen's  Lect  on  the  Hist,  of  France,  Lect.  6. 

Stilte's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  pp.  352-358,  426-428. 

Von  Sybel's  Hist,  and  Lit.  of  the  Crusades  (Lond.,  1861). 

Isaac  Taylor's  Fanaticism,  sec.  7;  Lond.,  1833,  pp.  240-266; 

N.  Y.,  1834,  pp.  176-191. 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist.,  Lect.  10. 
Blackw.,  4.  303  ;  59.  475. 
Brit.  Q.,  18.  63.     Same,  Li v.  Age,  40.  251. 
Chr.  Exam.,  55.  97. 
Chr.  R.,  19.  290. 
For.  Q.,  5.  623. 
Liv.  Age,  71.  567. 
New  Eng.,  35.  601. 
No.  Brit,  1.  1 14. 


CHIVALRY. 

9.    Was  Chivalry,  in  its  character  and  influence,  more  good 
than  evil? 

While  Chivalry  gets  its  elements  from  human  nature,  in 
its  distinctive  form  it  belongs  to  the  Middle  Ages,  consti- 
tuting one  of  its  characteristic  features.  Hence,  in  this 
sense  it  is  not  permanent,  but  transitional,  leaving  to  the 
coming  time  the  results  of  its  influence. 

Associated  first  with  Feudalism  and  then  with  the  Cru- 
sades, and  in  spirit  and  purpose  a  union  of  the  military  and 
religious  and  of  devotion  to  woman,  it  is  above  all  things 
ideal.  Hence  it  is  rather  romantic  than  practical,  and  tends 
to  the  extravagant.  Its  ideal  is  higher  than  its  attainment, 
and  in  practice  it  is  found  as  mixed  as  the  age,  with  its  gal- 
lantry tainted  with  licentiousness. 


HISTORY.  43 

In  truth,  it  is  a  somewhat  incongruous  compound  of  good 
and  evil;  yet  in  its  general  influence  it  seems  to  have 
gained  more  credit  for  good  than  for  evil.  This  is  because  it 
has  been  idealized,  and  made  the  representative  of  its  con- 
spicuous characteristics.  These,  at  best,  make  it  but  par- 
tial, and  not  the  highest  in  character  and  influence.  Yet 
in  some  respects,  existing  and  acting  amid  violence  and  dis- 
order, it  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  beneficent  forces 
of  the  times. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  495. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  34-39. 

Bell's   Historical    Sketches  of   Feudalism    (Lond.,    1853),  pp. 

109-121. 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi,  Chap.  22. 
Bulfinch's  Age  of  Chivalry,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  I. 
Miss  Cleveland's   George   Eliot's  Poetry  and  Other  Studies, 

P-  '53- 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  282-283. 
Cox's  Crusades,  pp.  46-49. 
Don  Quixote. 

Dunlop's  Hist,  of  Fiction,  Chap.  3-6. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  art.  Knighthood,  14.  no. 
Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  286  a,  286  b. 
Freeman:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  5.  323-326. 

2.  Reign  of  William  Rufus,  1.  169-174;  2.  236-237, 

406-408,  508. 
Guizot's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  France  (N.  Y.), 

2d  Course,  Lect.  6,  V.  4,  pp.  16-32. 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  Chap.  9,  Pt.  2,  Harper's  ed.,pp.  509-520. 
James's  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades. 

Lacroix's  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  136. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  414. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  2.  352-362. 
Masson's  Med.  France  (Story  of  the  Nations  S.),  pp.  33-38. 
Menzel's  Hist,  of  Germany,  trans.  (Bonn's  ed.),  2.  52-56. 
Michaud's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades,  trans.,  3.  294-301. 
Mills's  Hist,  of  Chivalry  (Lond.,  1825). 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  4.  54-61. 
Charles  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  1.  453~454- 
Pearson's  Hist,  of  Eng.  during  the  Middle  Ages,  V.  i,  Chap.  34, 

pp.  597-605. 
Penny  Cyc.,  7.  99. 


44        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Robertson's  Charles  V.,  Introd.,  sec.  i,  viii. 

Scott's  Essays  on  Chivalry,  etc-  (Lond.).     Same,  Encyc.  Brit., 

8th  ed.,  6.  602. 
Sismondi's  Lit.  of  the  South  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  68-71, 

176-193. 

Stanley's  Life  and  Corresp.  of  Thomas  Arnold  (Bost.),  1.  228. 
Stilte's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  pp.  351,  352. 
Ticknor's  Hist,  of  Spanish  Lit.,  V.  I,  1st  Period,  Chap.  11,  12 ; 

V.  2,  2d  Period,  Chap.  12. 
Blackw.,  47.  280. 
Ev.  Sat.,  15.  556. 
For.  Q.,  6.  350. 

Fortn.,  26.  731  (Law  of  Honor.     Freeman). 
New.  Eng.,  9.  422-426. 
No.  Am.,  89.  383. 
Penny  M.,  6.  22. 
Westm.,  5.  64-81. 


THE   PAPACY. 

10.    Was  the  Papacy ',  during  the  Middle  Ages,  a  beneficent 
power  in  European  affairs? 

The  Papacy  was  a  great  power  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
forms  a  leading  subject  of  mediaeval  history.  It  was  a 
power  both  for  good  and  for  evil ;  and  its  history,  like  that 
of  the  age,  is  varied  with  light  and  shade. 

Its  power  was  wellnigh  as  universal  as  that  of  Imperial 
Rome,  but,  unlike  that,  was  chiefly  spiritual.  Into  society 
made  fragmentary  by  the  individualism  and  endless  divis- 
ions of  the  Feudal  System,  it  brought  a  needed  unity.  It 
gave  unity  to  the  Church.  To  the  Pope,  acting  in  his 
sphere  with  supreme  authority,  all  were  related,  and  his 
authority  extended  to  all.  The  influence  of  the  Pope 
was,  therefore,  coextensive  with  society  itself.  His  power, 
as  despotic,  might  be,  according  to  his  actual  character, 
either  beneficent  or  maleficent;  or  it  might  more  likely 
be,  in  different  senses,  both  at  once.  The  sway  of  the 
Papacy,  which  was  paramount  in  a  rude  and  superstitious 
age,  and  served  an  end  in  the  development  of  civilization, 


HISTORY.  45 

declined  at  the  approach  of  the  era  of  enlightenment  and 
freedom. 

Questions  like  the  following  may  aid  in  the  consideration 
of  the  subject. 

How  much  did  the  Papacy  contribute  to  the  establish- 
ment, maintenance,  and  spread  of  Christianity?  How 
much  was  it  a  departure  from  and  corruption  of  Chris- 
tianity? How  efficient  was  it  to  restrain  lawlessness,  and 
to  maintain  some  degree  of  social  order?  Was  its  suprem- 
acy a  usurpation  and  a  tyranny?  What  was  the  general 
influence,  for  good  or  evil,  of  its  contest  with  the  civil 
power?  Did  it  in  any  degree  preserve  and  transmit  the 
good  of  the  past? 

In  short,  was  its  power  on  the  whole  beneficent?  Or 
did  it  rather  hinder  than  aid  progress? 


Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  trans.,  2.  253,  477. 

Bryce's   Holy   Roman   Empire,   Chap.   7,    10,   and   Chap.   21, 

PP-  369-373,  384-387- 

D'Aubigne^s  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  I. 
Dorner's  Hist,  of  Prot.  Theology,  1.  30-35. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  19.  491-501. 
Freemantle's  The  World  as  the  Subject  of  Redemption.    Bamp- 

ton  Lect.  for  1883,  pp.  180-189. 
Fisher:   i.  Hist,  of  the   Chr.   Ch.  Period,   5-7.      See   Index, 

Papacy. 

2.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  Pt.  2,  Period  3,  Chap,  i,  2. 
Gieseler's  Ch.  Hist,  sec.  47-62;  Edin.,  1853,3.3-89;  Harper's 

ed.,  1865,  2.  241-383. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  Chap.  7. 

Lea's  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist,  pp.  112-176,  288-299,  377-391- 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  1.  455-459- 
Macaulay's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  7. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  7.  630,  631. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity  (Am.  ed.),  2.  42-44,  469-4701 

510;  3.  360-364,  497-500;  4.  460-467. 
Neander's  Ch.  Hist.,  3.  346-399. 
Ranke's  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  I. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  1735. 
Still's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  Chap.  9,  10. 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist.,  Lect.  9,  11,  12. 


46         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


CHARLEMAGNE   AND   HILDEBRAND. 

ii.     Did  Charlemagne  have  more  influence  on   mediceval 
history  than  Hildebrand? 

Charlemagne  and  Hildebrand  are  the  two  principal  indi- 
vidual representatives  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  one  appears 
early  in  its  history,  the  other  in  an  important  point  of  its  de- 
velopment. The  one  stands  for  civilization  and  the  Church 
against  barbarism,  the  other  for  the  Church  in  its  conflict 
with  the  civil  power.  Each  was  fitted  for  his  time.  The 
second  phase  of  development  was  an  advance  on  the  first, 
not  only  in  time,  but  in  fact.  Each  was  important  in  its 
own  order ;  and  the  leader  in  each  great  movement  was,  in 
the  highest  and  largest  sense,  a  providential  man. 

CHARLEMAGNE. 

Charlemagne  occupies  the  first  rank  among  great  men. 
Great  in  himself,  he  made  the  period  also  great  by  his  large 
achievements.  He  stamped  himself  not  only  on  his  own 
time,  but  his  influence  reached  down  into  the  future.  His 
work  and  his  influence  were  large,  like  himself.  He  was 
many-sided.  He  was  not  only  a  conqueror,  but  a  statesman 
and  a  patron  of  learning,  and  in  all  he  made  a  necessary 
and  important  contribution  to  civilization.  His  conquests, 
his  laws  and  administration,  and  his  schools  and  encourage- 
ment of  learning  marked  a  great  advance  of  civilization  in 
its  triumph  over  barbarism.  The  comprehensive  unity  at 
which  he  aimed  in  government  was  neither  a  complete  suc- 
cess nor  an  entire  failure.  The  idea  remained,  and  was  not 
unfruitful.  While  the  central  government  was  but  tempo- 
rary, the  local  governments  survived  and  grew  into  states. 
The  order  of  development  was  through  feudalism  into  na- 
tionalities ;  yet  the  principle  of  unity,  briefly  and  crudely 
realized  in  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  operated  in  subse- 
quent history  in  civil,  and  still  more  in  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment. Charlemagne's  work  and  influence,  then,  were  even 
greater  and  more  enduring  than  they  might  seem.  His 


HISTORY.  47 

career  fell  in  a  crisis  of  the  world's  history ;  and  his  work 
was  to  bring  light  out  of  darkness  and  order  out  of  chaos, 
and  thus  to  make  positive  and  secure  the  beginning  of  the 
new  civilization. 

Andre  ws's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  5. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  289. 

Baring-Gould's  Story  of   Germany  (Story  of  the  Nations  S.), 

Chap.  9. 

Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Chap.  5. 
Church's  Beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Ep.  of  Mod.  Hist.  S.), 

Chap.  7. 

De  Quincey's  Theol.  Essays,  2.  1 55 ;  same,  Blackw.,  32.  786. 
Emerton's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Bost.,  1891), 

Chap.  13. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  5.  402. 

Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  235-239. 
Gibbon's  Rome  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  5,  Chap.  49,  pp.  44~5l- 
Godwin's  Hist,  of  France,  Chap.  16,  17. 

Guizot :  i.  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  France  (N.  Y.),  V.  2,  3,  Lect. 
20-24. 

2.  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  V.  I,  Chap.  10,  II. 

3.  Masson's  Abridgment  of  the  same,  pp.  42-51. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  Chap.  I,  Pt.  I.     See  Index. 

Hegel's  Philos.  of  Hist,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.),  Pt.  4,  sec.  I,  Chap.  3. 

James's  Hist,  of  Charlemagne. 

Lea's  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.     See  Index. 

Lewis's  Hist,  of  Germany,  Chap.  4. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  2,  Lect.  14. 

Menzel's  Hist,  of  Germany,  1.  247-260. 

Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  I. 

Mombert's  Hist,  of  Charles  the  Great  (N.  Y.,  1888). 

Neander's  Ch.  Hist,  V.  3.     See  Index. 

Peake's  Hist  of  the  German  Emperors  (Philad.,  1874),  pp.  17-24- 

Stille"'s  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  Chap.  3. 

Thiers's  Consulate  and  Empire,  trans.  (Philad.,  1878),  5.  756. 

Van  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  1.  88. 

White's  Hist,  of  France,  pp.  30-32. 

Bentley,  33.  22,  148,  391. 

Eel.  M.,  53.  424. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost),  19.  357. 

Nat  Q.,  6.341. 

No.  Am.,  81.  112. 


48        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 
HlLDEBRAND. 

Hildebrand  was  the  greatest  of  the  Popes,  and  the  best 
representative  of  the  Papacy.  It  was  he  who  first  grasped 
with  vigor  and  developed  to  its  full  extent  the  idea  of  the 
Papacy.  The  Papacy  did  not,  indeed,  in  him  actually  reach 
its  height ;  but  it  was  he  who,  by  the  reach  and  intensity  of 
his  thought  and  the  tenacity  of  his  will,  made  the  principle 
a  fact,  and  thus  insured  its  success. 

Whatever,  then,  the  Papacy  was  in  in  its  time,  both  of 
good  and  of  evil,  it  owes  more  to  Hildebrand  than  to  any 
other  man.  He  was  essentially  a  reformer.  His  burning 
zeal  impelled  him  to  ardent  efforts  for  the  purification,  in- 
dependence, and  supremacy  of  the  Church.  He  sought  a 
comprehensive  unity  for  the  Church,  which  should  make  it 
universally  influential  and  supreme.  Hence  his  contest  with 
the  civil  power.  It  was  necessary  to  his  scheme  of  reform- 
ing the  Church  that  it  should  be  made  independent  of  the 
civil  power. 

Thus  was  gained  the  supremacy  of  the  Papacy,  which 
made  it  a  spiritual  despotism.  But  if  this  spiritual  suprem- 
acy of  the  Papacy  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  the  time, 
and  not  as  a  principle  valid  for  all  time,  there  may  be  found 
in  it  a  necessary  and  important  element  of  progress. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  2.  481-510. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  5,  sec.  13,  pp.  156-157. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  8.  243. 

Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  pp.  158-162. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  11.  50;  9th  ed.,  11.  176. 

Fisher:  i.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  pp.  265-268. 

2.  Ch.  Hist,  pp.  173,  182-185. 
Gieseler's  Ch.  Hist,  Edin.,  1853,  3.  3-27 ;  Harper's  ed.,  1865, 

2.  241-260. 

Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Europe  (N.Y.,  1855),  p.  146. 
Hallam's  Middle  Ages.     See  Index. 
Hase's  Ch.  Hist.  (N.  Y.,  1870),  pp.  191-196. 
Kurtz's  Ch.  Hist  (Philad.,  1881),  1.  395-403. 
Lea's  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.,  pp.  356-371. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  V.  2,  Lect.  16. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  3.  1001. 


HISTORY. 


49 


Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  3,  Bk.  7,  Chap.  1-3. 
Montalembert's  Monks  of  the  West,  trans.  (London,  1879),  V.  6, 

7,  Bk.  19. 

Neancler's  Ch.  Hist,  V.  3,  4.     See  Index. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  910. 
Sir  James  Stephen's  Essays  in  Eccl.  Biog.,  1.  i.    Same,  Ed.  R., 

81.  273.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  5.  178.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  5.  417. 
W.  R.  W.  Stephenc's  Hildebrand  and  his  Times  (Ep    of  Ch. 

Hist.  S.). 

Stilld's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  pp.  283-293. 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist.,  Lect.  9. 
Contemp.,  42.  46,  237. 
Month.,  23.  93,  347,  427;  24.  370,  502;  25.  104,  235,  379. 


MODERN    HISTORY. 

Modern  history  is  the  legitimate  outcome  of  medi- 
aeval history,  which  it  supersedes.  Resting  on  ancient 
history  as  its  ultimate  basis,  it  differs  from  it  in  im- 
portant respects.  It  is  more  various  and  complex. 
Its  activity  is  more  general,  more  diversified,  more 
practical  and  intense.  Intelligence  is  working  down- 
ward, and  freedom  outward;  and  while  personal 
rights  and  liberty  are  made  more  secure,  the  sure 
tendency  is  to  a  comprehensive  unity. 

Modern  history  is  much  larger  than  ancient;  and 
while  its  rate  is  faster,  its  duration  seems  likely  to 
continue  indefinitely  longer.  As  all  nations,  by  mu- 
tual acquaintance,  intercourse,  relations,  and  inter- 
ests, are  becoming  united,  they  are  likewise  coming 
to  have  a  common  history.  Thus  the  universality 
of  modern  history  insures  its  perpetuity.  While  the 
parts  may  change  variously,  one  declining  and  an- 
other advancing,  the  general  movement  is  upward. 

A  notable  characteristic  of  modern  history  is  pro- 
gress,—  progress  in  thought,  in  material  prosperity, 
in  the  general  enlightenment  and  elevation  of  men, 

4 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


50        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

in  reforms  of  abuses,  in  justice  and  beneficence,  in 
righteousness  and  peace.  Modern  society  is  not,  in- 
deed, without  its  peculiar  evils  and  dangers ;  yet  it 
bears  also  in  itself  the  forces  which  are  working  its 
own  purification.  Hence  its  progress  also  makes 
more  sure  its  perpetuity. 

CHRISTIANITY  AND   MODERN   CIVILIZATION. 

12.   Has  Christianity  been  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  modern  civilization  ? 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  relation  of  Christianity 
to  civilization  may  be  considered. 

First,  civilization  may  be  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
Christianity.  In  this  case  Christianity  will  be  set  in  the 
foreground,  will  be  made  the  standard  of  comparison,  and, 
being  considered  in  its  essential  nature  and  influence,  will 
be  seen  to  be  a  pervading  element  of  modern  civilization, 
and  to  stamp  its  character  as  Christian. 

But,  reversing  the  terms,  Christianity  may  be  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  civilization.  In  this  case  civilization  will 
be  set  in  the  foreground,  and  will  be  made  the  subject  of 
investigation  and  of  analysis  to  find  its  primitive  elements, 
and  to  determine  their  mutual  relations  and  their  relative 
proportions.  This  will  show  how,  and  how  largely,  Chris- 
tianity actually  enters  into  modern  civilization,  and  in  what 
sense  and  to  what  degree  this  civilization  is  really  Christian. 

CHRISTIANITY. 

Christianity,  introduced  into  the  world  as  a  new  spiritual 
power  in  the  last  stages  of  ancient  history,  became  first  the 
religion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  afterward  the  dominant 
power  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  still  continues  as  the 
great  spiritual  force  of  the  modem  era. 

Transforming  first  of  all  the  individual,  it  vitally  affects 
the  family,  society,  the  state,  and  the  nation.  It  quickens 
and  enlarges  thought,  purifies  and  elevates  morals,  and  gives 


HISTORY.  51 

a  new  and  higher  significance  to  life.  It  promotes  educa- 
tion and  general  intelligence,  gives  to  literature  a  new  char- 
acter and  to  art  a  new  inspiration.  Embodied  in  the  Church 
and  expressed  in  creed  and  ritual,  it  is  in  itself  a  spirit  and 
a  life  transcending  the  external,  overflowing  its  receptacles, 
and  affecting  more  or  less,  directly  or  indirectly,  all  within 
the  sphere  of  its  influence. 

Adapted  to  all  times,  to  all  nations,  and  to  manifold  forms, 
it  contains  within  itself  elements  which  insure  its  perpetuity 
and  its  progress.  Hence  it  is  the  great  civilizer.  It  is  the 
vital  principle  of  modern  civilization,  the  principle  of  reform 
and  of  true  progress,  which  resists  and  arrests  corruption, 
attacks  and  overthrows  advancing  evil,  shows  the  intrinsic 
worth  of  man  as  man,  puts  the  chief  honor  on  good  charac- 
ter imd  right  conduct,  raises  the  low,  diffuses  freedom,  saves 
from  selfishness,  and  promotes  harmony,  peace,  and  good 
will,  and  the  doing  of  good  to  others.  It  has  elevated 
woman,  prompted  and  cherished  an  earnest  care  for  the 
necessary  instruction  and  training  of  children,  established 
charitable  institutions  for  the  relief  and  care  of  all  classes 
of  unfortunates,  softened  the  rigor  of  punishments,  procured 
in  many  countries  the  abolition  of  slavery,  put  an  effectual 
check  on  war  and  ameliorated  its  necessary  evils,  —  in  short, 
has  exerted  in  all  human  affairs  a  beneficent,  refining,  and 
elevating  influence. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  530. 

Bayne's  Essays,  V.  2,  Chap.  8.     Same,  in  part,  Eel.  M.  47.  175. 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi. 

Bremen  Lectures,  Lect.  9. 

Phillips  Brooks's  Influence  of  Jesus,  esp.  Lect.  2. 

De  Quincey's  Theol.  Essays,  1.  I." 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  1.  225-228 ;  2. 1. 

Freemantle:    I.    The  World   as  the  Subject   of  Redemption. 

Bampton  Lect.  /or  1883,  esp    Lect.  7,  8. 
2.    The  Gospel  of  the  Secular  Life,  esp.  Serm.  3. 
Harris's   Civilization  as  a  Science  (N.  Y.,   1873),  PP-  42~44i 

83-103. 

Huntington's  Human  Society  (N.  Y.,  1860),  Lect.  8. 
Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1881),  3.  269-275. 


52         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Laurie's  Ely  Volume:  Missions  and  Science  (Bost.,  1881). 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  Bk.  7,  Chap.  5,  sec.  5. 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  Chap.  14. 

Charles  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  1.  446-462. 

Maurice's  Friendship  of  Books,  Lect.  5. 

Proceedings  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  1873,  PP-  594,  675-688. 

Shairp's  Culture  and  Religion. 

Storrs's  Divine  Origin  of  Christianity  indicated  by  its  Histori- 
cal Effects. 

Swing's  Truths  for  To-day,  Serm.  u. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  1.  180;  3d  S.,  3.  in,  573. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  8.  13  (Christianity  Part  of  the  Common  Law  of 
Eng.). 

Cong.  Q.,  9.  235. 

Contemp.,  38.  737. 

No.  Am.,  76.  148-166. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  13.  273-274. 

MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 

Civilization  in  its  elements,  since  it  pertains  to  man,  com- 
prises material,  intellectual,  and  moral  forces.  These  three 
classes  of  powers  are  interdependent,  and  act  and  react 
each  upon  the  others.  The  material  is  the  lowest,  and  the 
basis  of  the  intellectual  and  moral.  Hence  civilization  be- 
gins and  goes  forward  by  an  advance  in  the  material  com- 
forts of  life ;  but  along  with  the  advance  of  the  material 
proceed  also  the  intellectual  and  the  moral.  These,  indeed, 
are  not  of  the  material,  but  are  dependent  upon  and  co- 
ordinate with  it,  as  the  spirit  of  man  is  dependent  upon  and 
co-ordinate  with  his  body. 

It  will  be  necessary,  then,  to  ascertain  what  are  the  char- 
acteristic material,  intellectual,  and  mornl  elements  of  mod- 
ern civilization,  which  make  it  different  from  the  ancient 
civilization.  These  constitute  its  reality,  its  substance.  But 
their  source  and  seat  are  found  in  human  nature,  and  ap- 
pear in  the  course  of  its  development.  Hence  Christianity, 
as  a  spiritual  power  of  Divine  origin,  acts  upon  it  from 
above ;  yet  so  far  as  it  enters  into  human  nature  and  be- 
comes a  part  of  it,  it  thereby  enters  into  civilization  and 
becomes  a  part  of  it.  But  Christianity  in  human  nature 


HISTORY. 


53 


loses  something  of  its  ideal  character  and  essential  power. 
Hence  it  not  only  affects,  but  is  affected  by,  civilization. 
It  is  developed  with  it,  and  does  not  always  lead.  Medi- 
aeval Christianity  was  adapted  to  its  time,  as  modern  Chris- 
tianity is  adapted  to  its  time  \  yet  the  Christianity  of  the 
mediaeval  era  was  more  dominant  and  influential  than  the 
Christianity  of  the  modern  era.  Natural  science,  in  mod- 
ern times,  has  led  the  van  of  progress,  and  has  not  only 
revolutionized  general  thought,  but  has  greatly  modified 
Christian  thought.  A  certain  comprehensiveness  of  thought 
characterizes  the  age,  which,  while  it  includes  Christianity, 
modifies  it  by  bringing  it  into  comparison  with  other  lines 
of  thought. 

Modern  civilization  has  received  much  from  ancient  civ- 
ilization, to  which  it  has  added  new  elements  gamed  from 
the  Northern  tribes  and  from  Christianity.  These,  in  com- 
bination and  development,  have  issued  in  a  new  civilization. 
This  progressive  civilization  is  characterized  by  free  and 
endless  inquiry,  with  fast-growing  knowledge  ;  by  boundless 
enterprise,  with  astounding  results ;  by  discoveries  and  in- 
ventions without  number,  which  have  revolutionized  soci- 
ety ;  by  an  enlarging  world,  tending  to  a  unity  of  amity  and 
intercourse ;  by  the  elevation  of  the  masses  and  a  growing 
regard  for  their  rights ;  in  short,  by  a  general  enlighten- 
ment, in  the  promotion  of  which  the  press  has  become  the 
rival  of  the  pulpit.  So  complex,  rich,  and  full  is  this  mar- 
vellous civilization,  that  to  determine  the  relative  influence 
of  its  diverse  elements  would  be  no  light  task. 

Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  V.  i,  Chap.  1-6. 

Comte's  Pos.   Philos.,  Martineau's  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1854),  V.  2, 

Bk.  6,  Chap.  n. 
Draper:  i.  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  19-26. 

2.  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science. 

3.  Civil  Policy  of  America. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  2.  282-286,  360-363. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  Lect.  I,  2. 
Harris's  Civilization  as  a  Science. 
Hittell's  Hist,  of  Culture,  Chap.  5-7. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  485. 


54       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lecky's  Hist,  of  Rationalism  in  Europe. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  Bk.  7,  Chap.  5,  sec.  8. 

Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (Am.  ed.),  1.  186.  Same, 
Westm.,  25.  i. 

Charles  Morris's  Civilization :  An  Historical  Review  of  its  Ele- 
ments (Chicago,  1890). 

Timbs's  Wonderful  Inventions. 

White's  Warfare  of  Science. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  13.  257,  385  et  seq.,  esp.  pp.  388-392 ;  27.  31 1. 

Westm.,  68.  386  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  212,  213). 


THE   REFORMATION   AND   THE   RENAISSANCE. 

13.    Has  the  Reformation  exerted  more  influence  on  modern 
civilization  than  the  Renaissance  ? 

The  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  form  the  two  dis- 
tinct and  contrasted  yet  related  parts  of  that  great  general 
movement  which  effected  the  passage  from  the  mediaeval  to 
the  modem  era.  Both  were  general  in  their  spread  and  in- 
fluence ;  yet  the  one  had  its  beginning  and  centre  in  Italy, 
the  other  in  Germany. 

One  stands  for  culture,  the  other  for  religion.  Neither  is 
in  itself  complete,  but  each  is  necessary  to  the  other.  They 
represent  enduring  and  contemporaneous  forces,  which  not 
only  vitally  affect  each  other,  but  which  have  a  dominant 
influence  on  civilization  as  a  whole. 

THE  REFORMATION. 

The  period  of  the  Reformation  is  one  of  the  most  event- 
ful epochs,  and  the  Reformation  itself  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  important  movements,  of  modern  history.  It 
is  important  in  its  general  character  and  in  its  manifold  and 
momentous  results.  By  it  the  ecclesiastical  unity  of  Europe 
was  broken,  and  human  freedom  established. 

The  Reformation  was,  above  all,  the  bold  assertion  and 
the  successful  maintenance  of  the  natural  rights  of  the  in- 
dividual reason  and  conscience.  It  was  a  revolt  against 
human  authority  in  religion,  joined  with  the  acceptance  of 


HISTORY.  55 

the  Scriptures  as  the  only  and  the  sufficient  standard  of 
Divine  authority. 

By  it  Christianity  entered  upon  a  new  stage  of  develop- 
ment. It  was  not,  therefore,  a  mere  reformation  of  the 
existing  Church,  or  of  mediaeval  Christianity ;  it  was  a  new 
birth  of  Christianity,  which  started  it  on  a  fresh  career  of 
progress  and  of  influence.  Dealing  with  the  momentous 
interests  of  religion,  it  was  grave  in  its  character,  profound 
and  earnest  in  its  thought,  comprehensive  in  its  scope,  far- 
reaching  and  decisive  in  its  results.  Hence  it  embraced 
not  only  the  Church,  but  the  State,  for  the  State  was  con- 
cerned with  religion ;  not  only  the  individual,  but  society 
and  nations ;  not  only  religious,  but  civil  freedom. 

It  is  this  width  and  depth  of  the  Reformation,  in  its  prin- 
ciples and  spirit,  which  have  given  it  a  large  and  lasting 
influence. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  8,  sec.  14-20,  pp.  283- 

300. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  244. 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Chap.  18. 

Edward  Caird's  Crit.  Philos.  of  Im.  Kant  (N.Y.,  1882),  1.  71-72. 
D'Aubigne"s  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  esp.  the  Preface. 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  20,  pp. 

477-486. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  18.  821 ;  9th  ed.,  20.  319.     See  also  Gen. 

Index. 
Fischer's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.     Descartes  and  his  Schoolr 

trans.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  Introd.,  Chap.  6,  pp.  136-145. 
Fisher:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  esp.  Chap,  i,  15. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  Period  8. 

3.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  Pt.  3,  Period  2. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lect.  12. 
Gunsaulus's  Monk  and  Knight,  V.  i,  Proem. 

Hardwick's  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.  during  the  Ref.  (Lond.,  1880), 

esp.  pp.  9-10. 

Hausser's  Period  of  the  Ref.  (N.  Y.,  1885). 
Heeren's  Inquiry  into  the  Political  Consequences  of  the  Ref. 

Bound  with   the   Eng.   ed.   of  the   author's  An.   Greece. 

(London,  1847)  p.  243.     See  also  p.  305. 

Hegel's  Philos.  of  Hist.,  trans.  (Bonn's  ed.),  Pt.  4,  sec.  3,  Chap.  I. 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  3.  1552. 


56       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  I,  2.  287-288. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  8.  981. 

Penny  Cyc.,  19.  349- 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  Germany,  trans.  (Lond.,  1845-47). 

3  vols. 
Robertson's   Charles  V.,    Lond.,    1840,   3.   359-366;    Philad., 

1860,  3.  308-317.     Works  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  494-497. 
SchafFs  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  (Ch.  Hist.,  V.  6),  V.  I,  esp.  Chap.  I. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2004. 

Scherer's  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  1.  271,  281. 
SchlegePs  Hist,  of  Lit.  (Am.  ed.),  p.  237. 
Seebohm's  Prot.  Rev.  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.),  esp.  Pt.  3,  Chap.  7,  8. 
Van  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4. 
Viller's  Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence  of  the  Ref.,  trans. 

(Dover,  N.  H.,   1807;    Philad.,  1833).      Rev.  in  Chr.  Q. 

Spec.,  6.   159. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  9.  332;  10.  104,  253. 

Chr.  Exam. ,28.  20;  32.  19;  72.  255  (The  Ref.  and  its  Results). 
No.  Am.,  111.  102  (Luther  and  Ger.  Freedom). 
Westm.,  37.  177. 

THE  RENAISSANCE. 

The  Renaissance,  or  Revival  of  Learning,  was  the  first 
general  and  permanent  movement  which  marks  the  passage 
from  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  that  of  modern  times. 
It  was,  indeed,  the  birth  of  the  modern  spirit  in  its  essential 
character. 

In  form  it  was  literary  and  aesthetic ;  in  its  general  spirit, 
humanistic.  Hence  it  was  a  revolt  from  the  authority  of  the 
mediaeval  spirit,  joined  with  a  devotion  to  the  classic  spirit. 
It  was  not  a  mere  revival  of  the  ancient  spirit,  but  a  new 
spirit  inspired  by  the  old.  It  was  marked  by  a  certain  lib- 
erality, freedom,  and  independence,  which  made  it  a  de- 
parture from  the  antecedent  spirit,  as  well  as  a  preparation 
for  the  Reformation. 

It  has  restored  to  modern  civilization  the  classic  treasures 
of  the  ancient  civilization ;  it  has  given  to  modern  educa- 
tion its  most  powerful  impulse ;  modern  literature  owes  to 
it  its  largest  debt ;  and  of  art  it  was  the  golden  age.  The 
distinctive  spirit  of  the  present  age  is  itself  the  essential 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  —  modified,  indeed,  and  varied, 


HISTORY.  57 

but  not  lost.  It  is  the  spirit  of  inquiry,  of  independence, 
of  reason,  nourished  by  the  conscious  superiority  of  the 
human  spirit  in  its  career  of  progress,  of  self-development, 
of  growing  knowledge,  and  of  a  greater  supremacy  over 
nature. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  8,  sec.  1-13,  pp.  257- 

283. 

Burckhardt's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  trans. 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  20,  pp. 

465-469. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed.,  20.  380  (Symonds).     See  also  Gen.  Index, 

V.  25. 
Fisher:  i.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  pp.  391-395. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Clir.  Ch.,  pp.  278-286. 

3.  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  Chap.  3. 

Fischer's  Hist,  of   Mod.   Philos.     Descartes  and  his  School, 

trans.  (N.Y.,  1887),  Introd.,  Chap.  5. 
Guizot's   Hist,  of   Civilization   in   Europe   (N.  Y.,  1855),  pp. 

244-245. 

Gunsaulus's  Monk  and  Knight,  V.  I,  Proem. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Chap.  2-5. 
Hegel's  Philos.  of  Hist.,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.),  pp.  425-427. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  i,  2.  286. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity  (N.Y.,  1862),  8.  488-494. 
Thomas  Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  and  Sci.  (Lond.,  1827),  pp. 

320-326,  462-471. 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  the  Popes  (Lond.,  1871),  Bk.  i,  Chap.  2,  sec.  3, 4. 
Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
Schaff's  Renaissance. 
Schaff-Hertzog  Encyc.,  3.  2027. 
Scherer's  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  1.  264. 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  V.  i,  Age  of  the  Despots, 

Chap,  i  ;  V.  2,  Revival  of  Learning;  V.  3,  Fine  Arts;  V.  5 

(It.  Lit.,  V.  2),  Chap.  17. 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist.,  Lect.  26. 
Van  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  1-3. 
Villari's  Machiavelli  and  his  Times,  trans.  (Lond.,  1878),  esp. 

V.  i,  Chap,  i,  Introd. 
Brit.  Q.,  68.  305  (Am.  ed.,  p.  161). 
Contemp.,  34.  645  ;  36.  44. 

New  Eng.,  23.  661  ;  24.  35,  414,  605  et  seq.,  esp.  670-673. 
Quar.,  154.  33. 
Westm.,  108.  351  (Am.  ed.,  p.  171). 


58       REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY  WORKERS. 


MARY,   QUEEN   OF   SCOTS. 

14.    Do  the  facts  show  the  complicity  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  in  Darnley' s  assassination  ? 

There  is  no  personage  of  modern  history  whose  character, 
career,  and  fate  have  elicited  more  interest  than  that  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  Her  character  and  life  must  some- 
how match.  How,  then,  does  her  life  show  her  character? 
and  how  does  her  character  interpret  her  life  ?  The  central 
event  of  her  life,  from  which  it  may  be  dated  backward  and 
forward,  was  the  murder  of  Darnley.  Her  relation  to  this 
is  the  impenetrable  mystery  of  her  character  and  life.  If, 
on  the  one  hand,  her  character  does  not  seem  so  positively 
and  clearly  good  as  absolutely  to  preclude  the  bare  suspicion 
of  her  knowing  and  consenting  to  such  a  crime,  on  the  other 
hand  the  thought  should  not  be  entertained  without  proofs 
positive  and  strong.  But  the  facts,  though  they  may  look 
dark,  can  at  the  most  be  made  to  appear  only  as  incidental 
proofs ;  and  the  well  known  facts  are  susceptible  of  an  in- 
terpretation consistent  as  well  with  her  innocence  as  with 
her  guilt. 

The  chief  points  in  dispute  are,  whether  she  really  hated 
Darnley,  and  whether  her  show  of  affection  for  him  at  the 
last  was  but  feigned;  whether  she  really  loved  Bothwell, 
whether  her  alleged  letters  to  him  are  genuine,  and  whether 
she  married  him  willingly  or  by  constraint,  or  knew  at  the 
time  that  he  was  her  husband's  assassin ;  and,  finally,  how 
far  she  was  the  victim  of  party  plots.  It  must  be  consid- 
ered that  her  lot  was  cast  in  turbulent  times,  when  party 
strife  was  fierce.  What,  then,  was  her  part  as  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  actors  in  this  drama  of  life  and  history  ? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 
Brougham's  Statesmen  of  the  Times  of  Geo.  III.,  V.   I,  App. 

No.  4. 

Burton's  Hist,  of  Scotland,  V.  4,  Chap.  44-47- 
Encyc.  Brit.,  15.  596-598 ;  21.  504-505. 
Fisher's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  pp.  369-377. 


HISTORY.  59 

Froude's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  8.  242-275,  303-309,  348-381 ;  9.  1-102, 

1 12-122,  395-408. 
Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  Chap.  39. 
Mignet's  Hist,  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 
Robertson's  Hist,  of  Scotland.     Works  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3, 

Bk.  4-7.     Also,  dissertation  at  the  close  on  King  Henry's 

Murder. 

Sainte-Beuve's  Eng.  Portraits,  p.  I. 
Scott's  Hist,  of  Scotland  (Philad.,  1836),  2.  132-133. 
Blackvv.,  101.  389.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  93.  259. 
Fortn.,  37.  13.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  98.  370. 
Fraser,  84.  586-588. 
Liv.  Age,  35.  193. 
No.  Am.,  114.  323. 
Westm.,  57.  96  (Am.  ed.,  p.  52).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  32.  337. 

NEGATIVE. 

Henderson's  Casket  Letters  and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

Hosack's  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  her  Accusers  (Lond.,  1870), 

Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  6,  Chap.  2,  3. 

Meline's  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  her  latest  English  Histo- 
nan  (N.  Y.,  1872).  (A  criticism  of  Froude.) 

Scott's  Hist,  of  Scotland  (Philad.,  1836),  2.  133-135. 

Skelton's  Maitland  of  Lethington  and  the  Scotland  of  Mary- 
Stuart. 

Miss  Strickland's  Queens  of  Scotland  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3, 
pp.  5-8,  and  V.  4,  5. 

Blackw.,  146.  790  (Skelton). 

Fraser,  28.  253  ;  84.  584-605. 

Nation,  13.  323. 

Nat.  Q.,  9.  275. 

No.  Am.,  34.  144. 

Quar.,  67.  303  (Am.  ed.,  p.  163). 


EXECUTION   OF   MARY,  QUEEN   OF   SCOTS. 
15.    Was  the  execution  of  Mary y  Queen  of  Scots  Justifiable  ? 

The  positions  of  Elizabeth  and  Mary  respectively  brought 
them  into  conflict.  Mary  stood  for  Catholicism,  and  Eliza- 
beth for  Protestantism  ;  and  these  were  brought  —  not  only 
as  religions,  but  for  the  supremacy  in  civil  government  — 


60       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY    WORKERS. 

into  deadly  strife.  This  aspect  of  the  times  may  serve  in 
great  part  to  explain,  even  though  it  should  not  be  thought 
altogether  to  justify,  the  conduct  of  Elizabeth  toward  Mary. 
The  latter  came  under  the  power  of  the  former ;  and  this 
power  she  used  to  hold  her  in  imprisonment  for  nineteen 
years,  and  then  to  procure  her  execution  on  a  charge  of 
complicity  in  a  plot  to  assassinate  herself.  The  trial  could 
not  be  called  a  fair  one ;  and  the  hapless  victim  died  with 
a  composure  and  dignity  befitting  her  station  as  queen,  and 
solemnly  expressing  her  innocence  to  the  last.  This  act 
served,  indeed,  to  relieve  the  nation  of  one  peril  from  Cathol- 
icism ;  yet  it  remains  a  grave  question  whether,  especially 
considering  the  way  in  which  it  was  done,  it  can  be  justified 
either  legally  or  morally. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Burton's  Hist,  of  Scotland,  V.  5,  Chap.  59,  esp.  p.  256. 
Creighton's  Age  of  Elizabeth  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.),  pp.  175-178. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  15.  599-602. 
Fisher:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  pp.  381-382. 

2.  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  432-433. 
Froude's  Hist  of  Eng.  (N.  Y.),  V.  12,  Chap.  34,  esp.  p.  363. 
Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  2,  Bk.  6, 

Chap.  5,  6,  esp.  pp.  437-438- 
Hallam's   Constitutional    History  of  England   (Harper's  ed.), 

Chap.  3,  esp.  pp.  09-100. 
Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  4,  Chap.  42.     Also 

Notes  Y  and  Z  at  the  end  of  volume. 
Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  V.  3,  Chap.  12,  13. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  5.  252-256. 

NEGATIVE. 
Brougham's   Statesmen  of  the   Times   of   Geo.   III.  (Lond., 

i 839)*  V'  '»  APP-  Na  4'  P-  399- 
Encyc.  Brit,  Elizabeth,  8.  144. 

Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  6,  Chap.  6. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  5.  252-256. 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  I,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  5  (some  points  for 

affirmative). 
Robertson's  Hist,  of  Scotland.     Works  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3, 

Bk.  7. 


HISTORY.  6 1 

Miss  Strickland:  I.  Queens  of  Scotland  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  7, 

Chap.  60-62,  p.  356  et  seq. 
2.  Queens  of  Eng.  (N.  Y.),  V.  3,  Elizabeth, 

Chap.  9. 
Blackw.,  107.   105  (Criticism  of  Froude).     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

104.  365. 
Fraser,  28.  265-266.         Penny  M.,  2.  46. 


THE   PURITAN   REVOLUTION. 
1 6.     Was  the  Puritan  Revolution  justifiable  ? 

The  Puritan  Revolution  must  be  considered  as  making 
the  most  eventful  epoch  of  English  history,  and  as  occupy- 
ing an  important  place  in  modern  history  as  a  whole.  Its 
general  character  must  be  estimated  from  the  principles 
involved  in  it,  and  from  the  results  it  secured. 

Considered  in  itself,  it  was  neither  an  entire  success  nor 
an  utter  failure.  Its  end  seemed,  indeed,  to  make  it  a  fail- 
ure ;  but  subsequent  history  showed  that  it  was  the  sure  be- 
ginning, of  which  the  successful  revolution  that  followed  it 
was  the  end,  while  this  was  itself  the  beginning  of  a  new 
period  of  English  history.  The  second  revolution  effected 
the  complete  establishment  of  the  principle  of  constitutional 
liberty,  for  which  the  chief  contention  was  made  in  the  first. 

The  Puritan  character,  which  stamped  itself  on  the  Revo- 
lution, was  peculiar  and  striking.  It  was  religious,  narrow, 
strong,  high,  serious  and  earnest,  independent,  and  imbued 
with  an  enthusiastic  devotion  to  liberty.  But  the  Puritanism 
of  the  Revolution,  though  deeply  affecting  English  history, 
was  not  to  be  a  permanent  type  of  English  character. 

England  was  also  to  remain,  in  form,  a  monarchy;  but 
a  monarchy  which,  by  a  gradual  process  of  peaceful  devel- 
opment, was  to  become  in  spirit  and  in  fact  a  republic,  in 
which  the  source  and  seat  of  power  should  be  the  people. 

In  this  view,  the  first  revolution  was,  taken  as  a  whole, 
premature,  inasmuch  as  it  was  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
force  a  result  which  should  finally  appear  only  after  a  long 
period  of  natural  development. 


62       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Arnold's  Lectures  on  Mod.  Hist.,  Lect.  6. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.,  V.  i,  Ft.  2,  Chap.  I, 

PP-  325-345  5  old.  ed.,  V.  2,  pp.  1-32. 
Brodie's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  Brit.  Empire. 
Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist,  Pt.  3,  Period  2,  Chap.  9. 
Gardiner's  Puritan  Rev.  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.). 
T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  277,  esp.  pp.  277- 

278,  363-364. 
J.  R.  Green:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3, 

Bk.  7,  esp.  p.  194. 

2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Chap.  8. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lect.  13.     (The  best 

brief  description  of  parties  and  analysis  of  principles.) 
Hallam's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  Chap.  7-10. 
Hosmer's  Short  Hist,  of  Anglo-Saxon  Freedom  (N.  Y.,  1890), 

Chap.  9,  10. 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  5. 
Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Eng.  ed.),  V.  4,  Chap.  1-13. 
Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  7,  Chap.  4-6,  esp.  pp.  267-268;  V.  8, 

esp.  p.  163. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  art.  Milton,  1.  233-259.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  42. 

324-342. 

Mozley's  Essays,  1.  r  et  seg.,  art.  Straff ord. 
Neal's  Hist,  of  the  Puritans  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Pt.  2,  Chap. 

12,  pp.  428-432.      (Gives  arguments  for  the  King,  with 

answers.) 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  trans.,  V.  2,  3,  Bk.  7-11. 
Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  1.  385-389. 
Ed.  R.,  103.  i. 

Nat.  R.  7.  382.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  59.  851. 
New  Eng.,  1.  250. 
No.  Am.,  76.  334. 
Quar.,  99.  105  (Am.  ed.,  p.  57). 
Westm.,  70.  519  (Am.  ed.,  p.  287). 


EXECUTION    OF   CHARLES    I. 
17.    Was  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  justifiable  ? 

Absolute  monarchy  in  the  person  of  the  King,  and  liberty 
as  contended  for  by  the  Parliament  and  army,  were  in 
deadly  conflict ;  and  since  the  former  would  not  yield,  it 


HISTORY.  63 

seemed  inevitable,  by  the  logic  of  events,  that  he  must 
perish.  The  exigency  was  extraordinary,  the  act  itself 
revolutionary.  It  is  the  Revolution,  then,  that  must  furnish 
the  ground  of  its  justification.  It  must  be  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  Revolution,  and  as  having  a  like  ground  of 
justification. 

It  may,  however,  be  a  question  whether  the  Revolution 
was  not  in  this  itself  extreme,  and  incapable  of  vindica- 
tion. Can  it  be  shown  that  this  act  was  a  necessary  part 
of  the  Revolution,  and  important  for  the  securing  of  liberty  ? 
To  determine  this,  it  must  be  considered  somewhat  by  it- 
self, as  well  as  in  its  relation  to  the  general  course  of  events. 

It  was  a  radical  measure,  precipitated  by  the  radical 
party,  which  constituted  but  a  minority.  It  was  an  arbi- 
trary act,  done  indeed  in  legal  form,  but  from  a  virtual 
pre-judgment  which  made  it  certain;  and  its  certainty 
was  beforehand  secured  through  the  purging  of  the  Parlia- 
ment by  an  act  of  military  violence.  The  trial  of  the  King 
seems,  therefore,  to  have  been  but  a  mockery  of  justice. 

The  moral  influence  of  the  execution  was  twofold.  While 
on  the  one  hand  it  created  sympathy  for  the  King,  on  the 
other  it  tended  to  dispel  the  halo  of  sacredness  which  had 
surrounded  royalty.  Yet  it  did  not  destroy  the  monarchy ; 
so  that  in  this  act  the  extreme  party  did  not  attain  the  full 
end  it  sought. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  278. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  5.  404. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Brodie's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  Brit.  Empire,  esp.  3. 326-348. 

Carlyle's   Cromwell,  Harper's   ed.,   1860,  2  vols.,  1.   328-331 ; 
Lond.,  1871,  5  vols.,  2.  92-94. 

T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  326-327. 

Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  4.  100-112. 

Milton's  Prose  Works  (Bonn's  ed.).  V.  i,  A  Defence  of  the 
People  of  Eng. ;  A  Second  Defence,  etc. ;  Eikonoklastes 
V.  2,  The  Tenure  of  Kings  and  Magistrates. 

Picton's  Cromwell,  pp.  272-277. 

Chr.  Exam.,  40.  451-453. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  1.  398-402. 


64       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Ed.  R.,  40.  92.     (A  rev.  of  Brodie.) 

Meth.  Q.,  5.  355-358;  6.  588-590;  8.  66-69. 

NEGATIVE. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.,  1.  333-335 ;  old  ed.,  2. 

13-17. 

Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  3.  260-263. 
Hallam's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  Chap.  10, 

Pt.  I,  pp.  361-365. 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  ('Harper's  ed.),  5.  380-383. 
Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  8.  108-120. 
Macaulay:  i.  Essays,  1.  497-502,  art.  Hallam's  Constitutional 

Hist,  of  Eng.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  48.  138-141. 
2.  Essays,  1.  247-248,  in  art.  Milton.    Same,  Ed.  R., 

42.  334- 

May's  Democracy  in  Europe  (N.  Y.,  1878),  2.  430-437. 
South's  Sermons  (Philad.,  1844),  V.  4,  Serm.  33. 


PROTECTORATE   OF   CROMWELL. 

1 8.      Was  the   Protectorate  of  Cromwell  an   unjustifiable 
usurpation  and  tyranny? 

Cromwell  corresponded  to  and  matched  his  age  more 
precisely  and  completely  than  any  other  man.  He  was 
responsive  and  equal  to  its  emergencies,  to  its  wants  and 
requirements.  His  self- development  kept  pace  with  the 
progress  of  events.  The  nge  was  great,  great  in  oppor- 
tunities and  events,  and  called  for  a  great  man:  and 
among  not  a  few  wJio  were  more  than  ordinary,  who  were 
clear- sighted,  true,  and  patriotic,  he  was  the  one  great 
man,  —  great  because  he  was  strong  and  wise,  because  he 
had  the  mind  to  perceive  and  the  will  to  do  what  needed 
to  be  done. 

The  age  was  first  revolutionary ;  and,  its  spirit  working  in 
him  mightily,  his  achievements  became  the  marvels  of  its 
history.  When  the  extreme  limit  of  revolution  was  reached, 
then  came  the  inevitable  reaction ;  and,  with  characteristic 
promptness,  Cromwell  was  more  than  ever  the  creature  and 
the  creator  of  his  age.  The  revolution  was  extraordinary, 


HISTORY.  65 

in  the  interest  of  liberty ;  the  reaction  arbitrary,  in  the  in- 
terest of  good  government,  and  of  order,  peace,  and  pros- 
perity. The  government  of  the  Protector,  which  brought 
glory  alike  to  himself  and  to  the  nation,  was,  in  its  ad- 
ministration and  power,  rather  personal  than  national.  It 
had  not  its  root  in  the  nation,  and  passed  away  with  its 
creator.  But  the  age  had  its  great  mission,  and  with  this 
that  of  Cromwell  was  coincident.  Cromwell,  then,  must 
be  estimated  in  the  light  of  his  age,  of  which  he  is  the 
best  representative. 

The  justification  or  condemnation  of  the  Protectorate  of 
Cromwell  will  be  found  in  the  answers  given  to  these  two 
questions  :  Was  his  usurpation  of  the  government  a  neces- 
sity, required  by  the  exigency  of  the  times,  and  by  a  due 
regard  to  the  good  of  the  nation  ?  Can  the  tyranny  of  an 
arbitrary  government,  which  found  little  support  in  the  na- 
tion, be  justified  by  the  good  results  which  accompanied  it? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  5.  505-507. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.,  1.  335-342;  old  ed.,  2. 

18-27. 
Bissett's  Hist,  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Eng.  (Lond.,  1864- 

67),  2  vols. 
Brodie's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  Brit.  Empire  (Lond.,  1866), 

3.  438-501. 

Forster's  Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Eng. 
Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3,  Bk.  7, 

Chap.  12;  also  pp.  277-278. 
Guizot's  History  of  Cromwell,  trans.  (Philad.,  1854),  V.  i,  2, 

Bk.  4-8. 

Hallam's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  Chap.  10,  Pt.  2  (Har- 
per's ed.),  pp.  369-385. 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  5.  432-435,  and  Chap.  61. 
Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  8,  Chap.  5-7. 
May's  Democracy  in  Europe  (N.  Y.,  1878),  2.  441-451. 
Mozley's   Essays   (N.  Y.,   1878),  1.  229.      (Rev.   of   Carlyle's 

Cromwell.) 

No.  Am.,  37.  183-185. 
Westm.,  8,  350;  96,  121-136;  99.  146-150. 

5 


66       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

NEGATIVE. 

Canfield's  Lecture  on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well (Cleveland,  O.,  1847),  pp.  102-155. 

Carlyle:    i.   Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches,  Pt.  7-10,  Har- 
per's ed.,  V.  2;  Eng.  ed.  (Lond.,  1871),  V.  3-5. 
2.   Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  Lect.  6. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  6.  601-604. 

Gardiner's  Hist,  of  the  Great  Civil  War  (1891),  V.  3. 

T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  345-364,  esp. 
363-364- 

Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  V.  4,  Chap.  10-13. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  39. 

Macaulay:  i.  Essays,  1.  502-512,  art.  Hallam's  Constitutional 

Hist,  of  Eng.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  48.  141-149. 
2.  Essays,  1.  249-251,  art.  Milton.     Same,  Ed.  R., 
42.  335-336. 

Picton's  Cromwell,  Chap.  22-30,  esp.  pp.  502-506. 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1875),  v-  3'  Bk-  I2-     (Justi- 
fied historically,  in  its  results,  if  not  constitutionally.) 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  1.  402-425. 

Contemp.,  21.  408.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  447.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 
116.  771. 

Eel.  M.,  57.  474-484. 

Liv.  Age,  44.  43J-434- 

Myth.  Q.,  5.  360-364;  6.  595-596;  8.  71-84. 

Nation,  54.  382. 

Westm.,  33.  181. 

RICHELIEU'S   POLICY. 
1 9 .  Were  the  results  of  Richelieu's  policy  beneficial  to  France  ? 

Richelieu  was,  by  native  capacity,  a  king  and  ruler  of 
men.  It  was,  then,  but  natural  and  fit  that  he  should  be- 
come, in  power  and  influence,  supreme  in  France  at  a  time 
when  her  King  in  name  needed  a  master. 

Richelieu's  capacity  was  great,  how  did  he  use  it?  His 
opportunity  was  likewise  great,  how  did  he  improve  it?  He 
framed  a  policy,  definite,  positive,  and  consistent.  Like  the 
mind  that  conceived  it,  it  was  comprehensive  and  strong. 
It  embodied  the  idea  which  great  minds  have  sought  in 
various  ways  to  realize,  the  idea  of  a  comprehensive  unity. 


HISTORY.  67 

Richelieu  sought  to  realize  it  in  a  practical  way,  by  the  con- 
centration of  power  in  the  King,  by  making  the  monarchy 
absolute. 

His  power  was  in  his  will,  for  his  will  was  equal  to  his 
thought.  With  him  action  followed  thought,  and  made  it 
real.  Hence  by  his  policy  he  made  France  great,  —  great 
in  herself  and  in  her  relative  position  among  the  European 
states.  The  power  of  his  mighty  will  created  the  permanent 
power  of  an  absolute  government.  But  absolute  govern- 
ment implies  the  possession  and  exercise  of  an  irrespon- 
sible power,  which  does  not  permit  the  freedom  of  the 
governed.  .  Right  here,  then,  lies  the  decisive  point  of  the 
question.  Was  absolute  monarchy  for  France  a  necessity 
of  the  times?  Did  its  subsequent  workings  result  in  a 
preponderance  of  good  or  of  evil?  In  other  words,  in 
the  light  which  subsequent  history  casts  upon  the  policy 
of  Richelieu,  does  it  appear  that  it  was  the  best  which 
could  be  done  for  France  at  the  time,  and  that  it  may 
be  considered  as  a  necessary  and  important  step  in  the 
path  of  her  progress? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  316. 

Bridges's  France  under  Richelieu  and  Colbert. 

Crowe's  Hist,  of  France  (Philad.,  1835),  V.  2,  Chap.  2. 

Duruy's  Hist,  of  France,  abr.  and  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1889),  pp.  389- 

403- 
Dyer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  3.  250-251;  4.  298- 

299.    See  Index. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  19.  159;  9th  ed.,  art.  France,  9.  567-570. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  France,  trans.  (Bost),  V.  5,  Chap.  38-42;  Ibid., 

abr.  by  Masson,  Chap.  10. 
Kitchin's  Hist,  of  France  (Ox.,  1877),  V.  3,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  4,  5, 

esp.  p.  83. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  38. 
Stephen's  Lectures  on  the  Hist,  of  France,  Lect.  20. 
Student's  Hist,  of  France,  Chap.  19. 
Thierry's  Formation  and   Progress  of  the  Tiers  £tat,  trans., 

Bonn's  ed.,  (Lond.,  1859),  Chap.  8. 
White's  Hist,  of  France,  pp.  311-323. 
Atlan.,  9.  611. 
For.  Q.,  29.  276-277,  283. 


68       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Fraser,  75.  537.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  69.  78. 

Nat.  R.,  11.  45.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  -51.  304. 

Quar.,  158.  374- 

Temp.  Bar,  45.  328.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  127.  661.  Same,  Eel.  M 

86.  279. 
Temp.  Bar,  62.  229.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  150.  214. 


THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 

20.    Was  there  in  the  French  Revolution  more  of  good  than 
of  evil? 

The  French  Revolution,  considered  in  its  startling  and 
tragic  events,  in  its  radical  principles,  and  in  its  momen- 
tous results  and  far- reaching  influence,  forms  one  of  the 
most  important  epochs  of  modem  history.  France  was 
but  the  centre,  from  which  burst  forth  and  spread  abroad 
through  all  Europe  this  transforming  energy.  It  was  an 
extreme  and  violent  reaction  from  absolutism  in  govern- 
ment and  from  aristocracy  in  society ;  hence  its  influence 
was  alike  profound  on  government  and  society. 

In  its  aim  and  effort  it  was  most  radical  and  destructive. 
It  was  an  uprooting  of  the  old  to  make  way  for  the  new. 
Yet,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  destruction  not  only  went 
before,  but  for  the  time  far  exceeded  creation ;  for  it  was 
easier  to  abolish  the  old  than  to  bring  in  and  establish 
the  new.  The  first  was  speedily  done,  with  passion  and 
violence ;  the  second  must  be  wrought  slowly,  with  labor 
and  wisdom,  in  patience  and  through  much  experience. 

There  was  a  fervor  of  enthusiasm  for  liberty,  equality,  and 
fraternity;  and  in  the  commotion  which  this  excited  the 
high  fled  or  were  killed,  while  the  low  clamored  for  their 
rights  in  anarchy  and  bloodshed.  Never  was  revolution 
more  radical  and  complete.  It  was  a  vain  attempt  to  en- 
act theories  with  no  basis  of  experience,  to  build  up  the 
future  without  the  past  for  its  foundation. 

Yet  in  this  strange  compound  of  good  and  evil  lay  the 
future,  not  of  France  alone,  but  of  modern  society  and 
government.  Modern  civilization  was  in  it  compressed 


HISTORY.  69 

and  intensified.  It  is  modern  to  the  core  :  in  its  central 
principle  of  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity;  in  its  deliv- 
erance and  elevation  of  the  many ;  in  its  aspiration  and 
inspiration;  in  its  struggles,  victories,  and  defeats;  in  its 
enthusiasm  and  tragedies.  It  was  complex  and  various, 
with  conflicting  parties  and  opinions,  with  the  diverse  ele- 
ments of  human  nature  in  full  play,  and  is  not  fairly  judged 
by  its  excesses,  crimes,  and  impieties.  Neither  can  it  be 
rightly  and  fully  understood  by  a  near  or  narrow  view. 
For  its  clear  comprehension  there  is  required  a  long  look 
backward  and  forward,  at  its  causes  and  results,  together 
with  an  impartial  weighing  of  its  good  with  its  evil.  It 
is  the  mighty  movement  which  convulsed  and  transformed 
France,  and  whose  pervasive  influence  has  leavened  society 
and  revolutionized  governments. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Andrews's  Inst.  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  10,  sec.  2-17,  pp.  349-384. 
Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  V.  i,  Chap.  i2-i4,esp.pp.  668-670. 
Carlyle's  Fr.  Rev.  (Harper's  ed.,  1869),  esp.  1.  207-210  (Bk.  6, 

Chap,  i)  ;  2.  417-429  (Bk.  9,  Chap.  6-8). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  9.  596-608. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  2.  360-361. 
Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  pp.  497-519. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Lect.  14. 
Hazlitt's  Life  of  Bonaparte,  V.  i,  Chap.  3-6. 
Lamartine's  Hist,  of  the  Girondists  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  17-24, 

46-47,  248-262  ;  3.  536-538. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  45,  also  pp.  303-317. 
Mackintosh's  Misc.  Works  (Philad.,  1854).     A  Defence  of  the- 

Fr.  Rev.     (A  reply  to  Burke.) 
Martin:    i.    Hist,  of   France:    Decline  of  the  Fr.  Monarchy 

(Bost.,  1865),  2.  607-614. 

2.   Pop.  Hist,  of  France,  from  ist  Rev.  to  the  Present 

Time  (Bost),  V.  i.     See  esn.  pp.  19,  54,  59-61, 

80-117,  131,  135,  202-203,341-344,  449-450,  547- 

548,  616-622. 

May's  Democracy  in  Europe  (N.  Y.,  1878),  Chap.  13-14,  esp. 

2.  230-232. 

Michelet's  Hist,  of  the  Fr.  Rev.,  trans. 
Mignet's   Hist,  of  the  Fr.    Rev.,   trans.    (Lond.,    1873),   esP- 

PP-  1-2,  53-54,  164-166. 


/O         REFEKENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.),  1.  82.     (A  rev.  of 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe.)' 

Morley's  Rousseau  (Lond.,  1873),!.  1-7;  2.  50-54,  187-191. 
Pressense^s  Religion  and  the  Reign  of  Terror,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1868),  pp.  9-10,  20-29,  45,  49-50,  58-65. 
Thiers's  Hist,  of  the  Fr.  Rev.  (Am.  ed.).  esp.  4.  429-430. 
Tocqueville's  Old  Regime  and  the  Rev.,  trans.  (Harper's  ed., 

1856),  esp.  Bk.  I ;  Bk.  2,  Chap.  20. 
Ed.  R.,  71.  424-425  (Am.  ed.,  p.  233). 
Nation,  17  307  ;  27.  44;  31.  109,  149. 
Putnam,  8.  471. 

NEGATIVE. 

Adams's  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France,  Chap.  1-3. 
Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.,  1860),  V.  i,  esp.  pp.  29- 

30,  47,  64-65,  112,  130-132,  157,  214-215,  231-232,  293-295, 

310-312,  318-320,  388-390;    V.  2,  pp.  192-193,  237-238.- 

V  4,  pp.  129-130,552-554. 
Burke's  Reflections  on  the  Rev.  in  France;  also,  Letters  and 

other  Papers  relating  to  the  same.     See  Works,  Harper's 

ed.,  1854,  3  vols.,  V.  i,  2 ;   Bost,  1874,  4th  ed.,  12  vols., 

V.3-6. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  442-444. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  iSth  Cent.  (N.Y  ),  V.  5,  Chap  20,  21. 
Morley's  Rousseau  (Lond.,  1873),  V.  2,  Chap.  12,  esp.  pp.  130- 

141. 
Pressense"'s  Religion  and  the  Reign  of  Terror,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1868),  pp.  80,  88,  91-96,  108-1 14,  161-247,  252-254,  292-294. 
Scott's  Life  of  Napoleon,  Chap.  1-18. 
Sybel's  Hist,  of  the  Fr.  Rev.  (Lond.,  1866-68). 
Taine  :  i.  Ancient  Regime  (N.  Y.,  1876),  Bk.  3,  4,  esp.  pp.  170, 

201-203,  3i7-3«9»  323-328. 

2.  Fr.  Rev.,  3  vols.  (N.  Y.,  1878-85),  esp.  1.  214-216, 
246,  298-299,  355-356;  2.  1-23,  in,  137,  192-195, 
323-333;  3.  2-4,  30-51,  116-120,  164-192,  291- 
304,347-351,416-418. 

Contemp.,  36. 432  (Rev.  of  Taine)  ;  39.  944  (Principles  of  '89) 
Eel.  M.,  111.  466  (Goldwin  Smith). 
Ed.  R.,  6.  137;  133.  i. 
For.  Q.,  29.  275. 
Nation,  17.  322;   33.  198. 
No.  Am.,  93.  391. 
Quar.,  49.  152;  76.  521  (Am.  ed.,  p.  281). 


HISTORY.  71 

NAPOLEON. 
21.    Is  the  career  of  Napoleon  indefensible  ? 

Napoleon  is  the  prodigy  of  modern  history.  In  military 
genius  and  achievements  he  ranks  with  Alexander,  Caesar, 
and  Hannibal.  Of  the  eventful  history  of  his  own  time  he 
is  the  central  figure,  the  chief  actor ;  that  history  is  in  fact 
his  biography.  So  is  his  intrinsic  greatness  blended  with 
the  events  of  one  of  the  most  memorable  epochs  of  modern 
times  that  the  most  studied  depreciation  fails  essentially  to 
diminish  it. 

He  was  made  by  his  time,  and  in  turn  made  his  time. 
The  mighty  force  of  the  Revolution  was  concentrated  in 
his  single  person.  He  took  up  its  work,  and  did  for  it 
what  he  alone  could  do ;  and  his  supremacy  was  but  an- 
other stage  of  the  Revolution.  It  was  the  conclusion  of 
the  Revolution  in  the  law,  order,  equality,  and  centraliza- 
tion of  a  despotic  government.  This  seems  to  have  been 
the  necessary  transition,  in  the  order  of  Providence,  from 
the  anarchy  resulting  from  a  radical  revolution  to  the  regu- 
lated and  established  liberty  of  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment. It  was,  then,  though  not  yet  liberty,  a  long  step 
away  from  anarchy  toward  true  liberty;  and  had  left  far 
behind,  as  in  a  remote  past,  the  confirmed  absolutism 
which  the  Revolution  forever  destroyed. 

So  much  for  France  considered  in  herself;  what,  now,  of 
her  relation  to  the  rest  of  Europe?  Her  subjection  to  the 
Revolution  placed  her  in  antagonism  to  Europe,  or  rather 
to  the  ruling  powers.  On  the  other  hand,  since  it  put  her 
in  the  van  of  progress,  it  made  her  the  leader  of  the  na- 
tions or  peoples  of  Europe. 

Now  Napoleon  was  by  nature  a  warrior  and  a  conqueror. 
Coming  forward  .n  the  time  of  a  general  war,  when  Europe 
was  arrayed  against  France,  he  fought  and  conquered  for 
France,  for  revolutionary  France.  In  fact,  the  whole  series 
of  wars,  including  all  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  which  formed  a 
chief  characteristic  of  the  revolutionary  epoch,  had  a  vital 


72        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

connection  with  the  Revolution ;  and  the  overturnings  which 
they  effected  in  Europe  were 'favorable  to  the  general  pro- 
motion of  political  liberty  and  of  national  unity.  Hence 
the  career  of  Napoleon,  whatever  he  himself  may  have  in- 
tended, must  be  considered  as  having  contributed  much  to 
the  conservation  of  the  principles  of  the  Revolution  in 
France,  and  to  their  promotion  in  many  of  the  countries 
of  Europe.  Nor  was  all  lost  in  his  fall.  He  did  a  work 
which  remains,  a  work  far  surpassing  his  own  thought  or 
plan ;  for  he  was  the  instrument  of  the  Supreme  Power 
and  Wisdom  which  rules  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

We  have  thus  considered  Napoleon  historically,  in  his 
relation  to  the  age ;  for  his  career  was  in  the  largest  sense 
historical,  and  not  merely  individual.  Personally  he  was 
possessed  of  extraordinary  force,  intensity,  concentration, 
quickness,  and  endurance.  But  with  his  great  ability  he 
had  also  great  weaknesses ;  and  doubtless  his  greatest  weak- 
ness, like  that  of  some  other  great  men,  is  found  in  his  de- 
fective moral  principle.  He  was  not  destitute  of  the  moral, 
but  neither  was  he  subject  to  it.  He  sought  success  with 
too  little  regard  to  the  means,  and  was  not  in  harmony 
with  the  moral  order  of  the  world. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Adams's  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France,  Chap.  4.  Same, 
No.  Am.,  116.  i. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  478-479;  2.  67-68, 
237-238,  562-585,  599-6°°;  3-  7-39.  498»  538-540,  600- 
601 ;  4.  85-101,  415-419. 

Bayne's  Essays  (Bost,  1858,  and  Chicago,  1880),  V.  2,  Chap.  6, 
pp.  208-234. 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  22. 

Channing's  Works,  1.  69.     Same,  Chr.  Exam.,  4.  382;  5.  135. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  442-444. 

Dyer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  V.  5,  Chap.  59-67, 
esp.  pp.  361-362. 

Emerson's  Prose  Works  (Bost.,  1873),  2-  136-138  (Represent- 
ative Men  :  Napoleon). 

Encyc.  Brit.,  9.  608-618. 

Lanfrey's  Hist,  of  Napoleon  the  First  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1871), 


HISTORY.  73 

1.  24,  62,  88-91,  93-101,  190-203,  241-242,  261-262,  274-275, 
284-292,  307-357,  368-393,  399-403,  4H-452,  496;  2.  1-14, 
85,  101-110,  127-170,  190-203,  222-247,  380-383,  398-399, 
418-427,  462-463,  531-532,  551-552,  557-559,  563-567,  57i- 
572,  605-610;  3.  1-3,  336-339,  562-566,  575-581. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  47. 

Martin's  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  2.  24-25,  27,  29,  44,  117- 

122,  124-126,   164-169,    I77-l8l,  200-202,  209,  240-241,281- 

287,  305-306, 417,  420-421,  452-454, 550. 

Pressense^s  Religion  and  the  Reign  of  Terror,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1868),  pp.  274,  286-287,  292,  316,  317-344,  352-358,  359-378. 

Extract  from  the  above,  Hours  at  Home,  2.  548. 
Scott's  Life  of  Napoleon. 
Seeley's   Napoleon  the  First  (Bost.,  1881),   esp.  pp.   237-315 

(Napoleon's  Place  in  Hist.).     Same,  in  part,  Encyc.  Brit., 

17.  192. 

Stevens's  Life  of  Madame  de  Stael,  2.  275-280. 
Brit.  Q.,  55.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  112.  771. 
Contemp.,  31.  106-108.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  90.  164-165.     Same, 

Liv.  Age,  136.  132-134. 
Eel.  M.,  23.  181. 
Ed.  R.,  107.  358  (Am.  ed.,  p.  183);  108.  32  (Am.  ed.,  p.  16); 

126.  299  (Am.  ed.,  p.  153). 
For.  Q.,  17.  317. 
Meth.  Q.,  16.  568. 
New  Eng.,  11.  329. 
N.  Princ.,  3.  145,  289  (Taine). 
Nation,  41.  467. 
Putnam,  5.  12,  429. 
Westm.,  97.  399  (Am.  ed.,  p.  189). 

NEGATIVE. 

Abbott's  Life  of  Napoleon.     Same,  Harper,  V.  3-10. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.,  1860),  1.  479-480;  2. 

78,  192-193,  200-208,  214,  216-221,  319. 
Andrews 's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist,  Chap.  10,  sec.  18,  19,  pp. 

385-39I- 

Bayne's  Essays,  V.  2,  Chap.  6,  pp.  181-208. 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  pp.  356-363,  esp.  p.  361. 
Duruy's  Hist,  of  France,  abr.  and  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1889),  Chap. 

62-67,  esP-  PP-  622-623. 

Emerson's  Prose  Works  (Bost.,  1873),  2-  121-136. 
Fyffe's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Europe  (N.  Y.,  1887),  V.  I,  esp.  pp.  537- 

541.     Rev.  in  Nation,  32.  76. 


74        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  France  (N.  Y.,  1855),  2. 398-400. 
Hazlitt's  Life  of  Napoleon  (Philad.,  1875).  2.  45-50,  68-96,  169- 

177,  212-216,  222-228,  231-252,  282-295,  359-36o»  365-367, 

384-410;    3.    18-26,   162-165,   187-188,    191-194,    248-250, 

273-299.  380-383. 

Martin's  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  2.  272-273. 
Mignet's  Fr.  Rev.,  Bohn's  ed.  (Lond.,  1873),  p.  408. 
Morris's  Fr.  Rev.  and  First  Empire  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.),  pp.  170- 

172,  185-104,  218,  240-241,  258-259. 
Ropes's  The  First  Napoleon.     Rev.  in  Dial  (Ch.),  6.  242.    Lit. 

W.  (Bost.),  16.  469. 
Thiers's  Consulate  and  Empire  (Philad.,  1878),  esp.  1.  58,  63- 

65,  198,  247-248,  3i8-3i9>  4H-4I6,  498-499;  2.  104,  208- 

211,  268,  332;  5.  225-228,  737-758. 

Van  Laun's  Fr.  Revolutionary  Epoch,  1.  395-3961  502-503. 
Ed.  R.,  27.  459. 
No.  Am.,  20.  393  (Code   Napoleon);  114.  200  (Criticism  of 

Lanfrey's  Napoleon) 

Putnam,  5.  io/-2o  (Letter  of  Joseph  Bonaparte). 
Quar.,  173.  438. 


BANISHMENT   OF   NAPOLEON. 

22.    Was  the  banishment  of  Napoleon  to  St.  Helena 
justifiable  ? 

Napoleon,  having  been  been  beaten  in  his  contest  with 
the  European  powers  and  exiled  to  Elba,  returns  after  a 
brief  space  and  again  throws  down  the  gage  of  battle. 
Risking  all  on  a  single  great  battle,  he  is  utterly  over- 
thrown, and  his  fortunes  irretrievably  ruined.  France  will 
have  no  more  of  him,  and  the  Allies  are  marching  with 
quick  steps  on  Paris. 

Whither  now  shall  he  turn?  Whither  flee  from  his  eager 
pursuers?  He  would  run  for  refuge  to  far-off,  free  Amer- 
ica ;  but  lo  !  English  vessels  are  at  hand  to  intercept  him. 
Resolving  to  trust  the  magnanimity  of  England,  he  gives 
himself  up  and  claims  her  hospitality.  And  now  Eng- 
land has  in  her  power  the  great  foe  of  Europe,  and,  above 
all,  her  own  greatest  foe.  What  shall  be  done  with  him  ? 
The  exigency  seems  so  great  as  to  demand  extreme  meas- 


HISTORY. 


75 


ures.  He  is  summarily  disposed  of  in  a  manner  that  seems 
somewhat  arbitrary.  Less  as  a  punishment  for  the  past  than 
for  security  in  the  future,  it  is  determined  to  hold  him  a 
prisoner  for  life  on  a  distant  rocky  isle. 

Was  this  really  a  breach  of  faith  ?  Had  Napoleon  any 
claim  upon  England  ?  Was  he  properly  a  prisoner  of  war  ? 
Was  the  act  necessary  for  the  protection  of  Europe  ?  Was 
the  fallen  Emperor  likely  again  to  become  a  disturber  of  its 
peace  ? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Campbell's  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  Eng.  (Bost,  1875), 
9.  102.  Life  of  Lord  Eldon,  closing  paragraph  of  Chap.  202. 

Channing's  Works,  1.  123-124. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  17.  225. 

Fyffe's  Mod.  Europe  (N.  Y.),  2.  57-58. 

Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  8.  38-41. 

Lockhart's  Life  of  Napoleon,  abr.  (N.  Y.  and  Auburn,  1856), 
pp.  382-389. 

Thiers's  Hist,  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire  (Philad.,  1878),  5. 
700-704. 

Van  Laun's  Fr.  Revolutionary  Epoch,  2.  202-203. 

NEGATIVE. 

Abbott's  Life  of  Napoleon,  2.  535-551.     Same,  Harper,  9.  935- 

947- 

Hazlitt's  Life  of  Napoleon  (Philad.,  1875),  V.  3,  Chap.  57. 
L'Ardeche's  Hist,  of  Napoleon,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1860),  two  vols. 

in  one,  V.  2,  Chap.  23. 
Las  Cases's  Journal  of  the  Life  of   Napoleon  at  St  Helena 

(Bost.,  1852),  1.  21-53. 

Lester's  Napoleon  Dynasty  (N.  Y.,  1873),  pp.  211-213. 
Martin's  Pop.  Hist,  of  France  (Bost.),  2.  568-569. 


NAPOLEON   AND    HANNIBAL. 

23.     Did  Napoleon   exhibit  as  great  military  genius  as 
Hannibal? 

The  great  captain  is  the  soul  of  his  army.     He  not  only 
organizes,  but  wields  it,     He  is  its  will,  and  what  it  effects 


J6        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

is  done  from  him  as  the  source  of  its  combined  action.  He 
also  inspires  it  with  enthusiasm,  and  every  heart  beats  with 
his.  Thus  one  man  becomes  practically  many  thousands, 
and  these  thousands  become  as  one.  The  one  thinks  and 
wills  for  the  thousands;  the  thousands  act  together  from 
the  thought  and  will  of  the  one.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
all  is  not  due  to  method  and  organization.  If  there  is  an 
art  of  war,  there  is  likewise  individual  genius  to  employ  it, 
and  the  genius  counts  for  more  than  the  art.  Hence,  in 
comparing  great  commanders,  it  is  their  individual  genius 
that  must  be  chiefly  considered.  But  in  estimating  this, 
other  things  must  also  be  taken  into  the  account :  their  cir- 
cumstances ;  their  helps  and  hindrances ;  their  resources  of 
men  and  means ;  the  character  of  their  army,  including  the 
ability  of  their  subordinate  officers,  as  well  as  the  like  things 
pertaining  to  the  enemy  which  may  serve  to  make  it  for- 
midable or  otherwise. 

NAPOLEON. 

The  great  genius  of  Napoleon  was  exercised  chiefly  in 
war.  He  had  all  the  qualities  of  a  great  military  com- 
mander :  originality  of  conception  and  clearness  of  in- 
sight ;  a  will  equal  to  his  thought,  and  prompt  and  sure 
in  the  execution  of  his  plan;  a  capacious  mind,  which 
cherished  large  designs;  a  restless  activity,  which  knew 
no  pause ;  a  commanding  power,  which  dominated  all 
minds ;  a  resistless  force,  which  like  a  whirlwind  swept 
all  before  it ;  in  short,  a  grasp  of  thought  and  an  inten- 
sity and  power  of  action,  which  easily  effected  extraordi- 
nary results.  Thus  he  was  not  only  master  of  his  art, 
but  its  only  complete  master,  for  it  was  in  himself;  it 
was  the  offspring  of  his  genius  and  coequal  with  it.  He 
neither  learned  it  of  others,  nor  could  he  impart  it  to 
others  as  he  himself  knew  it ;  and  of  whatever  general 
service  it  may  be,  none  save  one  of  like  mind  could 
practise  it  as  did  he.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  his  extraordinary  career  he  manifested  the  brilliance 
and  power  of  his  military  genius. 


HISTORY.  77 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  1.  Chap.  20,  esp. 
pp.   422-423,  also  pp.  509-510;    2.  96-99,   no,  350-380, 
408,436-462,  5J7-545;  3-  184-19°*  193-212,  237-258,  460; 
4.  58-84,  91-99,  130-140,  i  98-200,  286-338. 
Brougham's  Miscellanies  (Philad.,  1841),  1.  237-239. 
Dodge:  i.  Great  Captains,  Lowell  Lect.  (Host.,  1889),  Lect.  6. 

2.  Napoleon  (Great  Captains  S.). 
Hazlitt's  Life  of  Napoleon  (Philad.,  1875),  V.  i,  Chap.  7-14; 

V.  2,  Chap.  17,  28,  35  ;  V.  3,  Chap.  43~45,  5°-52. 
Lester's  Napoleon  Dynasty  (N.  Y.,  1873),  pp.  65-89,  101-109, 

122-127,  138-143,  150-158,  167-170,  200. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  4.  411-412. 
Ropes's  The  First  Napoleon. 

Scott's  Life  of  Napoleon,  Chap.  21-28,  37,  49,  52-54. 
Thiers:  i.  Fr.  Rev.  (Philad.,  1846),  3.  389-432;  4.  2-142. 

2.  Consulate  and  Empire  (Philad.,  1878),  5  vols.,  V.  I, 
Bk.  4,  22 ;  V.  2,  Bk.  22,  23,  25-27 ;  V.  3,  Bk. 
34-35  ;  V.  4,  Bk.  48-50.     Also  V.  5,  pp.  742-758 
(General  estimate  of  his  military  genius). 
No.  Brit.,  33.  143-144. 
Westm.,  15.  225. 

HANNIBAL. 

There  is  a  simplicity  in  the  character  of  Hannibal,  to- 
gether with  a  unity  in  his  career,  which  makes  his  greatness 
easier  to  estimate  than  that  of  Napoleon.  The  supreme 
motive  of  his  life  was  patriotism ;  and  this  was  manifested 
in  an  absorbing  hatred  of  Rome,  and  in  a  resolute  and 
steadfast  purpose  to  destroy  it.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  end 
he  was  dependent  chiefly  on  himself;  so  that,  in  the  long 
contest  which  ensued,  it  was  Hannibal  with  his  matchless 
genius  against  Rome  with  her  endurance  and  resources. 
Far  from  home,  and  unsupported  by  his  own  government ; 
with  a  small  army,  recruited  from  various  nations ;  in  the 
country  of  his  enemy,  the  most  warlike  and  successful  na- 
tion of  antiquity,  —  Hannibal  not  only  maintained  himself, 
but  by  a  series  of  overwhelming  victories  struck  his  foes  with 
terror  and  wellnigh  effected  their  ruin.  Thus  the  great- 
ness of  his  genius  is  manifest  in  the  wonderful  results  he 
achieved,  considering  especially  the  valor  of  his  foe  and 
the  paucity  of  his  own  resources. 


78         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS 

Arnold's  Hist,  of  Rome  (N.  Y,  1856),  3  vols.  in  one,  Chap.  43- 

44,  46,  and  Sup. 

Brougham's  Miscellanies  (Philad.,  1841),  1.  239. 
Church's  Story  of  Carthage  (Story  of  the  Nations  S.),  Pt.  4. 
Dodge:  I.  Great  Captains,  Lowell  Lect.  (Host.,  1889),  Lect.  2. 

2.  Hannibal  (Great  Captains  S.)« 
Encyc.  Brit.,  11.  441. 

Ihne's  Hist,  of  Rome  (Lond.,  1871),  V.  2,  Chap.  8. 
Liddell's  Hist,  of  Rome  (Harper's  ed.),  Chap.  30-34,  esp.  pp. 

294-295. 

Livy's  Rom.  Hist.,  trans.  (Edin.,  1761),  V.  4-6,  Bk.  21-30. 
Merivale's  Gen.  Hist,  of  Rome,  Chap.  20,  21 ;  also  Appleton's 

ed.,  1875,  p.  172;  Harper's  ed.,  1879,  P-  I98- 
Mommsen's  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1873),  Bk.  3,  Chap. 

4-6,  esp.  pp.  114-116,  333-334- 
Niebuhr's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.  (Lond.,  1870), 

i  vol.,  Lect.  7^-77,  esp.  pp.  371-373- 

R.  Bosworth  Smith  :  i.  Carthage  and  the  Carthaginians,  2d  ed. 
(Lond.,  1879),  Chap.  10-15,  esp.  pp. 
287-294. 

2.  Rome  and  Carthage  (Ep.  of  An.  Hist. 
S.),  abr.  from  above,  Chap.  9-14,  esp. 
pp.  166-169. 

Philip  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World  (N.  Y.,  1866),  V.  2,  Chap.  26. 
William  Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  Hannibal,  No. 

10,  2.  333. 

Thiers's  Consulate  and  Empire  (Philad.,  1878),  5.  754-755. 
Blackw.,  57.  752. 
Ed.  R.,  43.  163  (Passage  of  the  Alps). 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   PURITANS. 

24.  Have  the  New  England  Puritans  been  censured  too 
severely  for  their  treatment  of  the  Quakers  and  the 
so  called  witches  ? 

The  New  England  Puritans,  like  the  parent  stock,  were 
possessed  of  a  sturdy  character,  and  made  life  a  stern  re- 
ality. Serious,  upright,  profoundly  earnest,  and  intensely 
religious,  they  practised  intolerance  like  that  from  which 
they  themselves  had  fled.  It  is  this  inconsistency  which 
is  their  condemnation.  If  their  character  were  less  bright, 


HISTORY. 


79 


the  blot  on  it  would  not  appear  so  dark  or  conspicuous. 
But  though  the  stain  be  indelible,  it  does  not  cover  their 
whole  character.  Indeed,  intolerance  can  scarcely  be  reck- 
oned an  essential  element  of  the  Puritan  character. 

They  held  positive  opinions,  and  their  government  con- 
sisted in  a  union  of  religion  with  the  state.  Hence  it  is  to 
be  considered  how  far  they  regarded  what  would  now  be 
deemed  intolerance  as  necessary  for  self-protection.  The 
Quakers  who  troubled  them  seem  to  have  been  intruders 
and  religious  fanatics,  and  would  not  accept  of  banishment 
as  a  punishment.  None  the  less,  though  they  seemed  to 
provoke  their  fate,  were  they  martyrs  to  the  vital  principle 
of  religious  liberty.  The  witchcraft  delusion  was  the  nam- 
ing up  of  the  dying  embers  of  a  superstition  which  had 
prevailed  long  and  extensively  in  the  Old  World,  where  it 
had  been  accepted  by  wise  and  good  men,  and  had  led 
to  the  sacrifice  of  many  victims.  The  crimes  and  tragedies 
comprised  in  it  are  the  lasting  disgrace  of  all  who  were 
responsible  for  or  approved  them ;  yet  it  is  evident  that  the 
condemnation  should  be  confined  to  the  few  guilty  ones. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1883),  V.  i,  Pt.  i, 
Chap.  19;  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  3,  pp.  58-67.  Same,  in  sub- 
stance, old  ed.  (Bost.,  1854),  V.  i,  Chap.  10,  pp.  446-469; 
V.  3,  Chap.  19,  pp.  72-78,  84-99. 

Bryant  and  Gay's  Pop.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1883),  V.  2, 
Chap.  3,  8,  19. 

Dexter's  As  to  Roger  Williams  (Bost.,  1876),  pp.  105-141. 

The  Early  Hist,  of  Mass.,  Lowell  Lectures  (Bost.,  1869),  Lect. 
2,  3.  Rev.  in  Nation,  8.  253. 

Everett's  Orations  (Bost.,  1858),  1.  234-243. 

Fiske's  Beginnings  of  New  England,  Chap.  7,  esp.  pp.  179-191. 

HallowelPs  Quaker  Invasion  of  Mass.  (Bost.,  1884). 

Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  399-409. 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Republican  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Am. 
ed.  (N.Y.,  1868),  Chap.  9,  pp.  178-186. 

Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  1.  242-245  ;  1.  81-150,  esp.  pp.  143- 
148.  Same,  No.  Am.,  106.  176-232,  esp.  pp.  226-231. 

Palfrey's  Hist,  of  New  England,  V.  2,  Chap.  12. 

James  S.  Pike's  The  New  Puritan :  Life  of  Robert  Pike  (N.  Y.,1 
1879). 


80        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Upham's  Salem  Witchcraft  (Bost.,  1867),  2  vols. 

Bib.  Sac.,  34.  473. 

Chamb.  J.,  3.  381.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  6.  166. 

Chr.  Exam.,  11.  240;  87.  130-135. 

Chr.  R.,  14.  343- 

Cong.  Q.,  10.  1 54. 

Ed.  R.,  102.  542  (Am.  ed.,  p.  278).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  47.  577. 

Ed.  R.,  128.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  98.  387. 

Nation,  5.  391. 

No.  Am.,  68.  87, 93;  77.331;  100.  161 ;  108.  337  (W.F.  Poolc). 

O.  and  N.,  2.  4,  303  (Hallowell). 

Putnam,  7.  505. 


BANISHMENT  OF   ROGER   WILLIAMS. 
25.    Was  the  banishment  of  Roger  Williams  justifiable  ? 

The  fame  of  Roger  Williams  is  chiefly  due  to  his  advo- 
cacy and  promotion  of  the  principle  of  religious  liberty; 
and  it  has  been  quite  commonly  assumed  that  this  was 
the  vital  point  in  the  controversy  which  led  to  his  banish- 
ment, and  hence  that  this  was  a  direct  and  flagrant  viola- 
tion of  religious  liberty,  an  act  of  gross  intolerance. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  the  facts  show 
the  incorrectness  of  this  assumption ;  that  religious  liberty 
did  not  enter  into  the  question  at  issue  which  procured 
his  banishment ;  that  this  was  decided  from  political  rea- 
sons, because  his  course  was  detrimental  to  the  peace  and 
welfare  of  the  settlement ;  and  that  he  was  excluded,  as 
others  had  been,  as  a  disturber,  and  for  self-protection. 

The  Puritans  were  themselves  reformers,  but  Williams 
was  more  radical,  and  carried  farther  the  principle  of  sep- 
aration. Hence  his  antagonism  to  them  excited  their  an- 
tagonism to  him.  He  himself  showed  somewhat  of  the 
intolerance  of  a  zealous  reformer  in  his  denunciation  of 
and  separation  from  others,  while  those  whom  he  attacked 
showed  intolerance  in  their  determination  to  make  their 
practical  experiment  of  government  a  success.  Fortunately 
the  issue  was  happy  for  both  sides. 


HISTORY.  8 1 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Dexter's  As  to  Roger  Williams  (Bost.,  1876). 

Early  Hist,  of  Mass.,  Lowell  Lect.  (Bost.,  1869),  pp.  90-95. 

Palfrey's  Hist,  of  New  Eng.,  1.  405-425. 

Winthrop's  Hist,  of  New  Eng.  (Bost.,  1853),  1.  993-994,  204. 

Chr.  Exam.,  16.  97. 

New  Eng.,  36.  11  (Rev.  of  Dexter). 

No.  Am.,  77.  371-372  ;  106.  677-682  ;  123. 474(Rev.  of  Dexter). 

Unit.  R.,  35.  20. 

NEGATIVE. 

Arnold's  Hist,  of  Rhode  Island  (N.  Y.,  1859-60),  V.  I. 

Backus's  Hist,  of  the  Baptists  in  New  England,  2d  ed.  (New- 
ton, Mass.,  1871),  V.  i,  Chap.  2,  pp.  39-59. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  old  ed.  (Boston,  1854),  1.  366-381 ; 
rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1883),  V.  i,  Chap.  15. 

Gammell's  Life  of  Roger  Williams  (Sparks's  Am.  Biog.,  2d  S., 
V.  4),  Chap.  1-6. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  10.  999. 

Schaff-Herzog.  Encyc.,  3.  2531. 

Tyler's  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1878),  1.  241-246. 

Bapt.  Q.,  6.  156-166  (Rev.  of  Palfrey). 

Chr.  Exam.,  16.  72. 

Chr.  R.,  10.  256. 

Meth.  Q.,  12.  199. 


THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION  AND   CIVIL  WAR. 

26.    Was  the  Revolution  an  event  of  United  States  history 
more  important  and  influential  than  the  Civil  War  ? 

The  Revolution  made  the  Colonies  independent,  and  led 
to  their  union  under  one  general  government,  constituting 
them  thus  a  nation. 

The  necessary  union  thus  formed,  having  been  destroyed 
by  the  secession  of  many  States,  was  by  the  Civil  War 
restored  and  made  strong  and  perpetual.  The  Civil  War 
thus  completed  and  perfected  the  work  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, killing  at  once  slavery,  State  rights,  and  secession, 
and  binding  all  the  States  together,  firmly  and  surely,  in 
one  great  and  strong  nation. 

6 


82        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

THE  REVOLUTION. 

The  significance  of  the  American  Revolution  in  modern 
history  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  gave  birth  to  a  new  and 
powerful  nation,  the  most  modern  of  the  great  nations,  not 
only  in  its  origin,  but  as  embodying  in  its  civil  and  social 
institutions  most  of  the  modern  spirit. 

Its  immediate  aim  was  independence,  its  ultimate  aim  or 
end  liberty ;  hence  it  became  a  war  for  independence  in 
order  to  liberty.  Nevertheless,  the  contest  began  for  lib- 
erty, since  this  was  attacked,  and  ended  in  independence, 
since  this  was  inevitable.  But  independence  brought  a 
larger  liberty.  It  fir:;t  gave  the  opportunity  of  trying,  on 
a  grand  scale,  without  interference  and  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions,  the  experiment  of  universal  human 
liberty,  of  allowing  to  all  men  the  free  and  full  exercise 
of  their  natural  rights. 

Another  important  result  of  the  Revolution  was  union. 
The  union  and  mutual  dependence  of  the  parts  was  neces- 
sary in  order  to  the  security,  independence,  and  freedom 
of  the  whole.  The  common  spirit  and  aim  and  the  com- 
bined effort  of  the  contest  prepared  the  way  for  the  formal 
and  constitutional  union  which  followed  its  decision.  But 
the  assimilation  of  the  diverse  elements  necessary  to  a 
union  more  complete  and  stable  must  be  the  work  of 
time,  and  even  required  the  fierce  and  bloody  strife  of 
the  Civil  War. 

John  Adams's  Works  (Bost.,  1856),  10.  282. 
Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  old  ed.  (Bost,  1854),  V.  4-10,  esp. 
V.  4,  Chap,  i  ;   rev.  ed.  (N.Y.,  1884),  V.  4,  5.  esp.  V.  4, 

PP-  3-5- 
Bryant  and  Gay's  Pop.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  3,  Chap.  13-24; 

V.  4,  Chap.  1-4. 
Burke's  Works,  Harper's  ed.,  1854,  1.   191-217;  Bost.,   1871, 

2.  3-245. 

Everett's  Orations  (Bost.,  1858),  1.  73,  377,  526. 
Fiske:  i.  The  War  of  Independence. 

2.  The  Critical  Period  of  Am.  Hist,  1783-89. 

3.  The  Am.  Rev..  2  vols. 


HISTORY.  83 

Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic  of  the  U.  S.,  3d  ed.  (Bost., 

1881). 
Goodrich's  Select  Brit.  Eloquence  (Harper,  1856),  pp.  102,  148- 

153,  241. 

G.  W.  Greene's  Historical  View  of  the  Am.  Rev.  (N.  Y.,  1872). 
J.  R.  Greene :  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.4, 

Bk.  9,  Chap.  2. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.   People,  Chap.    10, 

sec.  2. 

Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  3. 
Hosmer's  Samuel  Adams  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 
Johnston's  The  United  States:    its  Hist,  and  Const.   (N.Y., 

1889),  Chap.  3-5.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  736-754. 
Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  V.  6,  Chap.  22. 
Lossing's  Pictorial   Field  Book  of  the   Rev.,  2  vols.  (Harper, 

1860). 

May's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.  (N.  Y.,  1877),  2.  5I4~524- 
Moore's  Am.  Eloquence  (N.  Y.,  1872),  1.  43,  60,  68,  120,  159, 

227,  286,  310,  324,  334. 

Niles's  Principles  and  Acts  of  the  Rev.  (Bait.,  1822). 
Sparks's  Correspondence  of  the  Rev.,  Letters  to  Washington 

(Bost,  1853). 

Thompson's  The  United  States  as  a  Nation,  Lect.  I,  2. 
Thornton's  Pulpit  of  the  Am.  Rev.  (Bost.,  1876). 
Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  Hist,  of  America,  V.  6. 
Winthrop's  Addresses  and  Speeches,  3.  373. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  15.  78  (The  War  for  Independence  and  the  War 

for  Secession). 
No.  Am.,  13.  169;  33.  449;  80.  389. 

THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

While  the  Revolution  achieved  independence  and  union, 
thus  making  a  nation  with  many  State  or  local  governments 
bound  together  by  one  federal  or  central  government,  the 
Civil  War  triumphantly  defended,  and  thus  made  stable, 
strong,  and  sure  this  great  and  good  work.  It  was  the 
decisive  ending  of  a  long  conflict.  It  was  the  maintenance 
of  the  supremacy  of  the  national  government  over  the  State 
governments.  Hence  it  greatly  promoted,  not  only  the 
conservation  and  perpetuity,  but  the  increase,  of  unity ;  and 
with  this,  liberty,  growth  and  enlargement,  and  the  general 


84         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

welfare.  It  swept  away  that  glaring  anomaly  of  republican 
government,  negro  slavery,  which  had  been  the  cause  of 
endless  strife,  and  the  great  obstacle  to  unity  and  pros- 
perity. The  war  was  for  union,  and  this  end  for  which 
it  was  waged  could  be  reached  only  by  the  destruction 
of  slavery.  Thus  the  war  was  a  grand  clearing  up,  in 
the  interest  of  peace,  harmony,  and  unity.  It  was  the 
reduction  of  the  antagonism  of  the  diverse  parts,  leading 
to  a  process  of  assimilation,  and  the  inauguration  of  a  new 
era  of  growth  and  prosperity.  It  was  the  terrific  storm 
which,  in  uprooting  slavery,  in  exciting  heroism  and  self- 
sacrifice,  and  in  the  wholesale  infliction  of  suffering  and 
death,  purified  the  moral  atmosphere.  It  was  a  striking 
proof  of  the  depth  and  power  of  the  patriotism  of  the 
people,  and  was  its  signal  triumph.  In  short,  it  showed 
the  supremacy  and  strength  of  that  conservative  element 
of  the  nation,  which  is  the  sure  promise  both  of  its  per- 
petuity and  progress. 

Beecher's  Patriotic  Addresses  (N.  Y.,  1889). 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  V.  i. 

Comte  de  Paris's  Hist  of  the  Civil  War  in  America. 

Cooper's  Am.  Politics  (Ch.,  1883),  pp.  81-168. 

Draper's  Hist,  of  the  Am.  Civil  War. 

Everett's  Orations,  4.  345.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  70.  259. 

Ibid.,  4.  330,  464,  516,  698. 

Gasparin  :  i.  Uprising  of  a  Great  People,  trans. 

2.  America  before  Europe,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1862). 
Greeley's  Am.  Conflict. 
Grant's  Personal  Memoirs. 
Rossiter  Johnson's  Short  Hist,  of  the  War  of  Secession  (Bost., 

and  N.  Y.,  1889). 
Johnston:    i.  The  United  States:  its  Hist  and  Const.  (N.  Y., 

1889),  Chap.  9-1 1,  pp.  191-272,  esp.  p.  244. 
2.  Hist,  of  Am.  Politics,  Chap.  19,  20. 
McPherson's  Polit.  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion  (Wash.,  1865). 
Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.,  1874),!.  i.    Same, 

Fraser,  65.  258.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  72.  648.     Same,  Eel. 

M.,  55.  491. 
Seward's  Diplomatic  Hist,  of  the  War  for  the  Union  (Works, 

V.S). 


HISTORY.  85 

General  Sherman's  Memoirs. 

Sumner's  Works,  7.  191,  327,  493. 

Swinton's  Decisive  Battles  of  the  War. 

Thompson's  The  United  States  as  a  Nation. 

Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Sbve  Power  in  America,  V.  3. 

Brit.  Q.,  34.  203.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  113.  548. 

Brit.  Q.,  55.  381  (Am.  ed.,  p.  203). 

Chr.  Exam.,  71.  95. 

Ed.  R.,  173.  400. 

Liv.  Age,  70.  9  (Motley) ;  70.  84  (Jay's  Oration);  72.  141  ;  93. 

323  (Montalembert). 
Nat.  Q.,  3.  146. 

New  Eng.,  19.  894;  21.  51,  222;  24.  690. 
No.  Am.,  95.  500  ;  96.467  ;  98.  234 ;  99.  246;  101.  190  ;  108. 

255. 

Putnam,  11.  8. 
Westm.,  76.  487  (Am.  ed.,  p.  263);  84.  43  (Am.  ed..  p.  20). 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  86.  193. 


AMERICAN   SLAVERY   AND   ANTISLAVERY. 

27.  Was  the  overthrow  of  slavery  in  the  United  States 
effected  more  by  the  influence  of  moral  than  of 
political  forces  ? 

American  slavery  was  the  flat  contradiction  of  American 
liberty.  For  the  latter  was  the  liberty  of  man  as  man,  and 
hence  of  all  men ;  while  the  former  was  the  holding  by  law 
of  millions  of  men  as  property,  and  thus  depriving  them  of 
their  liberty  and  of  their  natural  and  inalienable  rights.  The 
manifest  opposition  of  these  two  principles  made  inevitable 
an  irrepressible  conflict.  Liberty  was  the  positive  vital  prin- 
ciple of  the  nation  and  of  the  government,  and  slavery  was 
its  denial.  But  slavery  grew  and  became  strong.  Man 
was  money ;  and  to  own  and  have  the  absolute  control  of 
large  numbers  of  men  gave  power.  Hence  the  slave  power 
arose,  became  arrogant  and  defiant,  and  dominated  the 
nation.  It  gave  form  and  spirit  to  society  in  the  States 
in  which  it  existed,  and  was  sanctioned  and  sustained  by 
their  laws.  It  entered  into  national  politics  as  an  aggres- 


86        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

sive  and  ruling  element,  and^  as  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
American  institutions,  became  a  disturbing  force.  Secure 
as  in  a  stronghold,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  the  national 
power,  its  perpetuity  seemed  assured.  It  debauched  the 
national  conscience,  and  the  whole  land  fell  under  the 
shadow  of  its  baleful  influence. 

Yet  the  conscience  of  many  was  awakened,  and  these  in- 
creased rapidly  in  number  and  influence.  Slavery  was  de- 
nounced and  its  wickedness  exposed,  and  the  antislavery 
reform  became  a  great  and  growing  popular  movement. 
The  ultimate  aim  was  the  abolition  of  slavery ;  the  imme- 
diate effort,  universal  and  perpetual  agitation  in  order  to 
the  arraying  against  it  of  public  sentiment.  The  reform 
was  moral  to  the  core,  and  in  various  degrees  aroused  and 
intensified  the  moral  sentiment  of  the  North. 

Since  the  slave  power  was  dominant  and  aggressive  in 
politics,  it  likewise  provoked  political  resistance.  A  few 
bold  voices  were  first  raised  in  the  halls  of  Congress  in 
emphatic  protest,  rebuke,  and  argument ;  and,  as  the  move- 
ment swept  on,  parties  were  formed,  having  respect  in  some 
way  to  slavery  as  the  chief  issue.  The  moral  element  was 
the  vital  principle  and  force  of  the  whole  movement ;  and 
though  political  action  seemed  to  be  the  most  practical 
and  available  means  of  effecting  anything  immediate,  it  was 
necessarily  limited  to  the  restriction  of  slavery  within  its 
existing  limits. 

It  was  the  war  of  Secession  that  at  last  solved  the  ap- 
parently insoluble  problem.  The  slave  power  had  long 
menaced  the  Union;  and  when,  driven  to  desperation,  it 
cut  it  in  twain,  and  the  loyalty  of  the  North  was  aroused 
and  set  itself  in  array  against  it,  its  end  was  near.  When 
slavery  and  the  Union  came  in  deadly  conflict,  slavery  must 
die,  for  the  Union  was  a  necessity.  Thus,  by  the  irresisti- 
ble logic  of  events,  and  as  the  happy  issue  of  a  great  and 
memorable  struggle,  moral  and  political,  slavery,  which  had 
long  been  a  great  and  baneful  power  in  the  land,  came  to 
a  sudden  and  ignominious  end ;  and  great  was  the  rejoicing 
over  its  fall. 


HISTORY.  87 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  V.  I,  Chap.  1-7. 
Blake's  Hist,  of  Slavery  (Columbus,  O.,  1857),  Chap.  22-34. 
Bryant  and  Gay's  Pop.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  4,  Chap.  13-16. 
Life  and   Times  of   Frederick   Douglass,  written  by  himself 

(Hartford,  Conn.,  1882). 

Draper's  Hist,  of  the  Am.  Civil  War,  V.  2,  Chap.  64. 
Frothingham's  Gerritt  Smith  :  a  Biog.  (N.  Y.,  1878),  Chap.  6. 
William  Lloyd  Garrison :    The  Story  of  his  Life,  told  by  his 

Children,  4  vols. 

Giddings's  Speeches  (Bost.  and  Cleve.,  1853). 
Goodell's  Slavery  and  Antislavery. 
Greeley's  Am.  Conflict,  V.  i,  Chap.  1-20. 
Von  Hoist:  I.  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S. 

2.  Calhoun  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 
Johnson's   William   Lloyd   Garrison   and  his   Times,  rev.  ed. 

(Bost.,  1881). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  art.  Abolition,  Emancipation  Proc- 
lamation, Slavery;  1.  2  ;  2.  76 ;  3.  725. 
McPherson's  Polit.  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion,  2d  ed.  (Wash.,  1865), 

pp.  195-260. 

May's  Recollections  of  our  Antislavery  Conflict  (Bost.,  1869). 
Wendell  Phillips's  Speeches,  Lectures,  and  Letters  (Bost.,  1870). 
Pillsbury's  Acts  of  the  Antislavery  Apostles  (Bost.,  1884). 
Schucker's  Life  of  S.  P.  Chase  (N.  Y.,  1874). 
Schurz's  Life  of  Henry  Clay  (Am.  Statesmen  S.),  Chap.  8,  17, 

21,  26. 
Sumner  :  i.  Recent  Speeches  and  Addresses  (Bost.,  1856). 

2.  Works,  15  vols.  (Bost,  1874-83). 
Lewis  Tappan's  Life  of  Arthur  Tappan. 
Willey's  Hist,  of  the  Antislavery  Cause  in  State  and  Nation 

(Portland,  Me.,  1886). 

Williams's  Hist,  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  V.  2. 
Wilson's  Hist,  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power  in 

America,  3  vols. 
New  Eng.,  10.  588. 
No.  Am.,  120.  47. 
Westm.,  32.  i  (Harriet  Martineau). 


88        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


II.     BIOGRAPHY. 


A  BIOGRAPHY  is  the  history  of  a  life,  and  is 
personal  or  individual.  If  the  life  has  been 
public,  its  history  becomes  a  part  of  general  history. 
But  if  the  life  has  been  only  private,  its  history  may 
not  be  of  less  real  interest.  It  is  the  man,  whether 
in  public  or  private,  who  excites  interest.  Hence 
the  interest  of  biography  is  its  revelation  of  human 
character.  A  biography  is  therefore  true  and  ad- 
equate in  the  proportion  that  it  discloses  the  char- 
acter of  its  subject ;  but  its  real  value,  it  is  evident, 
must  depend  on  the  value  of  the  character. 

Human  character  is  as  various  as  the  numberless 
individuals  to  whom  it  pertains;  yet,  amid  this  in- 
finite variety,  there  are  a  few  general  types.  Men 
may,  therefore,  be  classified  in  accordance  with  the 
similarity  of  their  character.  First  of  all,  there  are 
the  two  opposite  classes  of  the  good  and  the  bad. 
Goodness  outranks  greatness.  Goodness  without 
greatness  is  more  admirable  and  attractive  than 
greatness  without  goodness.  True  manliness  im- 
plies genuine  goodness.  But  human  character,  at 
its  best,  is  in  a  forming  state,  and  hence  imperfect. 
All  human  goodness  is  relative,  and  not  yet  quite 
pure.  But  goodness  is  positive  and  real,  —  the 
beauty  and  the  glory  of  moral  character. 

In  reading  biography,  it  is  individual  traits  that 
especially  excite  interest.  Who  and  what  is  this 
man?  What  is  he  to  me?  What  is  his  influence? 
Has  he  light?  Has  he  love?*  Has  he  been  true 


BIOGRAPHY.  89 

to  himself,  and  so  to  others?  What  has  a  man 
achieved?  What  has  he  made  of  life?  What 
light  has  he  thrown  upon  it?  How  much  has  he 
of  insight  and  of  foresight?  How  much  has  he  made 
of  himself?  And,  in  doing  for  himself,  how  much 
has  he  done  for  others? 

Thus,  the  chief  interest  of  men  is  in  men,  and  in 
men  who  have  done  something  to  excite  interest. 
Of  such  men  and  women  biography  furnishes  nu- 
merous and  various  examples.  It  extends  and  per- 
petuates the  influence  of  character;  and  the  value 
of  this  influence  is  in  proportion  to  the  weight  and 
elevation  of  the  character. 


DEFENCE  OF  SOCRATES. 

28.    Ought  Socrates  to  have  saved  his  life  by  a  different 
defence,  or  by  escaping  from  prison  ? 

The  integrity  and  loftiness  of  the  character  of  Socrates 
are  manifested  even  more  conspicuously  in  his  last  mo- 
ments than  during  his  life.  He  had  been  all  his  life  a  » 
steadfast  and  determined  seeker  after  truth,  and  in  the 
supreme  test  of  his  faith  he  stood  immovable.  Conscious 
not  only  of  his  innocence  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him,  but  of  the  essential  purity  of  his  character  and  the 
usefulness  of  his  life,  he  showed  a  serene  indifference  in 
respect  to  the  result  of  his  trial.  Neither  his  condemnation 
nor  death  seemed  to  him  an  evil,  but  rather  a  good.  The 
evil  he  would  not  do  was  the  sacrificing  of  truth,  integrity, 
and  honor  for  the  preservation  of  his  life.  Hence,  in  his 
defence  he  spoke  the  truth  simply,  plainly,  and  without  fear 
or  qualification. 

But  to  many  of  his  judges  his  tone  doubtless  seemed, 
not  only  not  conciliatory,  but  arrogant  and  contemptuous. 
Hence  the  prejudice  which  already  existed  against  him  was 
rather  confirmed  than  abated.  He  was  a  martyr  for  the 


90        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

truth,  and  with  the  heroism  and  constancy  of  a  martyr  he 
demeaned  himself.  He  was  a  philosopher,  and  hence  acted 
according  to  reason,  and  not  according  to  feeling. 

Might  he  have  been  more  conciliatory  without  any  real 
sacrifice  of  truth  or  right?  Or  was  he  not  rather  in  all 
most  truly  himself,  and  an  illustrious  example  to  all  future 
ages? 

Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  pp.  1247,  1248. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  15.  148. 

Benn's  Greek  Philosophers,  1.  161-169. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  22.  234-236. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  r,  sec.  65,  p.  84. 

Felton's  Greece,  An.  and  Mod.,  2.  196-202. 

Grote:  i.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harpers  ed.),  V.  8,  Chap.  68,  pp. 

464-488. 

2.  Plato,  V.  i,  Chap.  7,  8. 
Jowett's  Dialogues  of  Plato,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1878).     The  Apology, 

and  Crito,  1.  303,  341. 
Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Fourth  Epoch,  sec.  i,  4th  ed.  (Lond., 

1871),  1.  143-153.     Lib-  ed.  rev.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  pp.  138- 

147. 

Ritter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1833),  2.  25-32. 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  3.  848-850. 
Thirlwall's  Hist  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  524-526. 
Zeller's  Socrates,  trans.,  Chap.  10. 
Chr.  R.,  25.  294,  472. 
Meth.  Q.,  13.  387-392;  31.  648-652. 
Quar.,  88.  53-61  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  27-32).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  28. 

402-406. 


CICERO. 

29.    Are  the  character  and  career  of  Cicero  deserving  of 
more  admiration  than  censure  ? 

Cicero,  through  his  numerous  writings,  and  especially  his 
letters,  is  one  of  the  best  known,  as  well  as  one  of  the  best 
appreciated,  men  of  antiquity.  Above  all  else  an  orator,  he 
was  yet  a  man  of  versatile  talents,  and  did  easily  and  well 
what  he  undertook.  Neither  original  nor  profound,  he  had 


BIOGRAPHY.  91 

an  active,  thoughtful,  and  fertile  mind,  and  was  a  master  of 
style. 

His  lot  was  cast  in  a  turbulent  time,  when  party  strife 
raged,  and  at  last  broke  out  in  civil  war.  His  character 
was  ill  suited  to  such  a  time,  and,  while  his  literary  fame  is 
clear,  his  political  fame  is  at  least  dubious.  He  was  not  at 
all  times  equal  to  the  emergency,  nor  positive  and  decided 
in  his  convictions  and  in  his  course.  His  vacillation  has 
been  attributed  to  cowardice,  which  excites  contempt. 

He  was,  in  fact,  neither  devoid  of  virtue,  nor  free  from 
faults.  But  in  an  age  when  profligacy  was  common,  even 
among  the  great,  he  kept  his  name  pure.  The  influence  of 
his  writings  has  doubtless  been,  on  the  whole,  not  only  ex- 
tensive, but  wholesome. 

J.  Q.  Adams's  Lect.   on    Rhetoric    and  Oratory  (Cambridge, 

Mass.,  1810),  1.  132-138. 
Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  344. 
De  Quincey's  Hist,  and  Crit.  Essays,  2.  5.      Same,  Blackw., 

52.  i. 
Duruy's  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.  (Bost,  1883),  V.  3,  sec.  2,  pp. 

593-596. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  6.  720;  gth  ed.,  5.  770. 
Forsyth's  Life  of  Cicero  (N.  Y.),  2.  319-330. 
Froude's  Caesar,  Chap.  27,  esp.  the  last  two  paragraphs. 
Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,  trans.  (Harper's 

ed.),  1.  335- 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  I,  Lect.  5. 
Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans  (N.  Y.),  3.  148-153. 
Middleton's  Life  of  Cicero  (Lond.,  1848),  sec.  12,  p.  291. 
Mommsen's  Hist,  of  Rome  (N.  Y.),  4.  724-730. 
Newman's  Historical  Sketches,  2.  245. 
Niebuhr's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  Rome  (Lond.,  1870),  Lect.  113, 

last  part,  pp.  638-639. 

Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  708. 
Trollope's  Life  of  Cicero,  2.  245-248;  also,  Chap.  12-14. 
Atlan.,  50.  697  ;  61.  641  ;  62.  51. 
Chr.  Exam.,  79.  57. 
Eel.  M.,  63.  137. 
Nation,  1.  49. 
No.  Am.,  46.  32-41,  50-55. 
Westm.,  64.  353  (Am.  ed.,  p.  185). 


92        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


GALILEO. 

30.   Is  Galileo  deserving  of  strong  condemnation  for  abjur- 
ing what  he  knew  to  be  truth  ? 

Galileo's  condemnation  by  the  Church  has  been  made 
the  most  conspicuous  incident  of  his  career.  His  career  as 
a  whole  is  made  illustrious  by  his  scientific  discoveries.  His 
eminence  in  science  commands  a  respect  and  admiration 
which  are  not  essentially  lessened  by  his  moral  weakness. 
His  fame  rests  on  his  achievements  as  one  of  the  great 
pioneers  in  science,  rather  than  on  his  moral  heroism. 

In  him  is  seen  the  conflict  between  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  a  conservative  religion  and  the  rational  au- 
thority of  progressive  science.  Hence  this  conflict  pos- 
sesses more  than  a  mere  individual  interest ;  its  significance 
is  as  wide  and  lasting  as  the  progress  of  knowledge.  The 
individual  was  silenced ;  the  truth  prevailed.  Galileo  was 
as  powerless  as  he  was  unwilling  to  undo  by  his  retraction 
what  he  had  done  by  his  lifelong  study  and  teachings  for 
the  advancement  of  science. 

There  was  a  conflict  in  himself,  in  which  lay  his  real 
weakness.  It  is  his  loyalty  to  the  Church,  and  his  ac- 
ceptance of  its  absolute  authority,  which  disclose  the 
secret  of  his  falseness  to  the  truth  and  to  his  own  con- 
victions. His  abjuration  was  a  perjury,  or  a  solemn 
asseveration  of  what  he  knew  to  be  false ;  yet  the  severer 
condemnation  has  been  visited  upon  those  who  forced  it 
upon  him.  His  glory  was  indeed  tarnished;  but  their 
triumph  has  ended  in  their  utter  shame. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  567-568. 

Brewster's  Martyrs  of  Science. 

Buckley's  Short  Hist,  of  Nat.  Sci.  (N.  Y.,  1876),  pp.  93-94. 

Cooke's  Credentials  of  Sci.  the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp.  76-77. 

Draper:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe, 

pp.  517-521- 

2.  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,  pp.  170-172. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  10.  376-381  ;  gth  ed.,  10.  32-34. 


BIOGRAPHY, 


93 


Fischer's   Hist,  of  Mod.   Philos.      Descartes  and  his  School, 

trans.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  pp.  133-136. 
Lives  of  Eminent  Persons.     Lib.  of  Useful  Knowl.  (Lond.,  1833), 

Galileo,  Chap.  13,  pp.  55-64. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  36. 
Mariotti's  Italy  Past  and  Present  (Lond.,  1848),  1.  410-413. 
Playfair's  Works   (Edin.,    1822),  2.    188-192.      Same,  Encyc. 

Brit.,  8th  ed.,1.  607-608. 

Private  Life  of  Galileo  (Lond.,  1870),  Chap.  10-12. 
White's  Warfare  of  Science  (N.  Y.,  1876),  pp.  33-63. 
Atlan.,  54.  95-96. 
Contemp.,  38.  665. 
Eel.  M.,51.  423;  60.  463. 
Ed.  R.,  80.  171-179  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  90-94). 
Independent  (N.  Y.),1877,  June  28,  p.  4  (The  Iscariot  of  Sci.). 
Nature,  14.  226. 

No.  Brit.,  33. 5 1 3  (Am.  ed.,  p.  274).    Same,  Eel.  M.,  52.  199,  303. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  10.  385. 
Quar.,  145.  374.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  138.  330. 


.      QUEEN  ELIZABETH. 

31.   Is  the  character  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  considered  as  a 
whole,  deserving  of  admiration  ? 

The  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  is  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious in  English  history.  The  age  was  eventful  and  fruit- 
ful. It  was  the  age  of  the  Reformation,  when  the  nations 
of  Europe  were  excited  with  religious  antagonisms.  Eng- 
land under  Elizabeth  stood  for  Protestantism,  and  in  this 
was  at  once  her  danger  and  her  glory. 

The  Queen  was  indeed  aided  in  her  administration  of 
affairs  by  able  counsellors ;  but  she  herself  united,  in  a  re- 
markable degree,  vigor  and  prudence.  Her  eminent  ability 
as  a  ruler  makes  her  personal  weaknesses,  such  as  vanity  and 
a  violent  temper,  seem  of  minor  consequence ;  but  when 
these  are  considered,  it  is  plain  that  they  ill  become  her  both 
as  queen  and  as  a  woman.  It  must,  then,  be  determined 
what  is  the  relative  influence  of  these  contradictory  qualities 
in  making  up  her  character  as  a  whole. 


94        REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Abbott's  Hist,  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Creighton's  Age  of  Elizabeth  (£p.  of  Hist.  S.). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  8.  635  ;  9th  ed.,  8.  142. 
Froude's  Hist  of  Eng.  (N.  Y.),  V.  7-12,  esp.  12.  580-587. 
Green :  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  2,  Bk.  6. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Chap.  7,  sec.  3-6, 

esp.  sec.  3. 

Guizot's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  chap.  20. 
Hume's  Hist  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  ¥.4,  Chap.  38-44,  esp.  pp. 

342-343. 

Jenkins's  Heroines  of  Hist.  (Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1853),  Chap.  6. 
Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Eng.  ed.),  V.  3,  Chap.  8-19. 
Lingard's  Hist  of  Eng.  (Eng.  ed.),  V.  6,  esp.  pp.  317-324. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  5,  Lect.  54. 
Ranke's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1875),  V.  i,  Bk.  3,  esp.  pp. 

331-334- 

Miss  Strickland's  Queens  of  Eng.  (N.  Y.),  V.  3. 
Eel.  M.,  48.  290.         Fortn.,  6.  641. 
Fraser,  48.  371,  489.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  39.  387,  643. 
Fraser,  63. 659 ;  64.  135  (Froude).    Same,  Liv.  Age,  70.  50,  659. 
No.  Am.,  50.  175-186. 
Quar.,  95.  207  (Am.  ed.,  p.   107.)     Same,  Liv.   Age,  42.  435. 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  33.  145. 


LORD   BACON'S   CHARACTER. 

32.  Are  the  character  and  career  of  Lord  Bacon,  as  a 

whole,  indefensible  ? 

33.  Was  the  character  of  Bacon  deserving  of  tJie  approba- 

tion of  posterity  ? 

The  merits  and  demerits  of  Bacon  have  probably  both 
been  exaggerated.  It  cannot  be  said  with  strict  truth 
that  he  was  either  the  greatest  or  the  meanest  of  mankind  ; 
much  less  can  it  be  said  that  he  was  both.  He  was  un- 
questionably great,  great  not  only  in  his  own  generation 
but  for  all  time,  great  in  his  profound  and  comprehensive 
thought  and  in  the  service  he  has  thereby  done  the  world. 
But  was  his  moral  character  as  low  as  his  intellect  was 
lofty  ?  Was  he  selfish,  unscrupulous,  base,  lacking  integ- 
rity and  moral  purpose,  so  that  in  moral  character  he  was 


95 

deserving  rather  of  contempt  than  of  admiration,  or  even 
of  approval  ? 

That  he  was  not  without  fault  he  himself  confessed,  and 
his  warmest  admirers  must  allow.  But  his  recognition 
and  confession  of  his  error  showed  a  moral  sensitiveness, 
and  went  far  toward  redeeming  his  fall.  At  the  same  time 
it  makes  for  the  extenuation  of  his  fault,  by  showing  that 
his  previous  unconsciousness  of  it  was  not  altogether  due 
to  moral  obtuseness. 

If  his  moral  character,  then,  was  not  light  without  shade, 
neither  was  it  altogether  dark.  It  would  not  be  just  to  call 
him  a  bad  man.  He  had  manifest  weaknesses  which  were  in 
striking  contrast  with  his  great  qualities.  His  errors  were 
due  rather  to  the  weak  and  negative  than  to  the  positive 
part  of  his  nature.  Severe  condemnation  of  him  itself 
implies  the  assumption  of  a  higher  ideal  than  for  many  of 
whom  less  is  expected. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Abbott:  i.  Francis  Bacon  (Lond.,  1885),  Pt.  i;   also,  App.  i. 

2.  Bacon's  Essays,  with  Introd.,  etc.  (Lond.). 
Campbell's  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  Eng.  (Bost.  1874), 

V.  2,  3,  Chap.  51-56,  esp.  Chap.  55. 
Church's  Bacon  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  2-6. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  3.  336  (Lord  Bacon).     Same,  Ed.  R.,  65. 

277  (Am.  ed.,  p.  145)- 

Contemp.,  28.  141  (Reply  to  Spedding  by  Abbott). 
Ed.  R.,  113.  309  (Am.  ed.,  p.  159),  (Rev.  of  Dixon). 
New  Eng.,  21.  37  (Rev.  of  Dixon). 

NEGATIVE. 

Dixon's  Personal  Hist,  of  Lord  Bacon  (Bost.,  1861). 

Encyc.  Brit.,  3.  200-209. 

Fowler's  Bacon  (Eng.  Philosophers),  Chap,  i,  esp.  pp.  26-28. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  3.  417-433. 

Montagu's  Life  of,  in  ed.  of  his  Works  (Philad.,  1859). 

Spedding:   i.  Account  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Francis  Bacon 

(Bost,  1878),  2  vols. 
2.   Evenings  with  a    Reviewer,   or  Macaulay   and 

Bacon  (Bost.,  1882),  2  vols. 
Contemp.,  27.  653,  821  (Rev.  of  Abbott  by  Spedding)  ;  23. 169. 

365,  562  (Reply  to  Macaulay's  Essay  by  Spedding). 
New  Eng.,  10.  333.         No.  Am.,  16.  300. 


96        REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

IMPEACHMENT   OF   WARREN    HASTINGS. 

34.    Was    Warren  Hastings,  in  view  of  his   career  as  a 
whole,  deserving  of  impeachment? 

The  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  on  his  impeachment  for 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  his  rule  of  India,  is  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  on  record.  It  was  virtually  a  trial 
of  the  East  India  Company,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the 
ablest  representatives ;  and  it  involved  especially  the  ethics 
of  its  civil  administration. 

Hastings  was  a  remarkable  man,  and  seemed  born  to 
rule.  His  rule  was  sagacious,  vigorous,  successful,  and  on 
the  whole  beneficent.  It  was  in  the  interest  of  the  com- 
pany which  he  served,  and  saved  India  for  England.  In 
this  view  it  proved  to  be  a  good  for  India  itself.  His 
governing  intentions,  then,  and  the  general  results  of  his 
rule,  seem  to  be  decidedly  in  his  favor. 

The  substance  of  the  charges  against  him  is  the  use,  in 
certain  cases,  of  questionable  means  for  the  obtaining  of 
needed  funds  and  for  the  maintenance  of  his  supremacy. 
It  was,  therefore,  the  thorough  investigation  of  these  partic- 
ular cases  which  constituted  his  long  trial ;  and  it  is  these 
which  must  be  examined  in  any  discussion  of  his  impeach- 
ment. Yet  the  bearing  of  these  upon  his  administration  as 
a  whole  should  also  be  considered.  Do  they  disclose  its 
general  character,  stamping  it  as  a  tyranny? 

The  general  feeling,  which  was  at  first  against  him,  met 
with  a  complete  revulsion  in  his  favor ;  so  that  he  came  to 
be  generally  regarded  as  a  wise  and  successful  ruler,  rather 
than  a  heartless  despot. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  3,  Chap.  51,  pp.  130- 

134- 
Burke's  Works,  Bost.,   1871,  12  vols.,  V.  8-12;   Harper's  ed., 

1854,  3  vols.,  V.  3. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  11.  512;  also,  India,  12.  802-803. 
Goodrich's  Select  Brit.  Eloquence  (N.  Y.,  1856),  pp.  362-363. 

405-436. 


BIOGRAPHY.  97 

Green:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  4.  275-276. 

2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Eng.  ed.,  1875,  pp. 

759-761,765-766;  Harper's  ed.,  1879,  pp.  746-748, 

752-753- 

Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Eng.  ed.),  V.  7,  Chap.  7,  pp.  123-134. 
Sir  Alfred  Lyall's  Warren  Hastings  (Eng.  Men  of  Action  S-)- 
Macaulay's  Essays,  5.  i.  Same,  Ed.  R.,  74. 160  (Am.  ed.,  p.  81). 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  93.  67,  131. 
Mahon's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1713-1783  (Bost,  1854),  V.  7,  Chap.  68- 

69,  pp.  242-310. 
Mill's  Hist,  of  Brit.  India  (Lond.  1817),  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  chap.  1-8 ; 

V.  3,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  2  ;  see  esp.  2.  683-684. 
Morley's  Burke  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Harper's   ed.,  pp. 

125-134. 

Prior's  Life  of  Burke  (Bost.,  1854),  1.  463-490. 
Trotters  Warren  Hastings.     Rulers  of  India  S.  (Ox.,  1890). 
Blackw.,  34.  319-343  ;  49.  423,  638. 
Westm.,  135.  289. 


FREDERICK  THE  GREAT,  PETER  THE  GREAT, 
AND  FREDERICK  II.  (HOHENSTAUFEN). 

35.    Was  Frederick  the  Great  a  greater  man  and  sovereign 
than  Peter  the  Great  1 

The  greatness  of  Frederick  and  of  Peter  is  identified  with 
the  greatness  of  their  respective  countries.  It  was  the 
genius  and  the  will  of  these  great  men  which,  in  the  main, 
made  Prussia  and  Russia  what  they  are.  Hence  these  are 
the  monuments  and  indubitable  witnesses  of  their  greatness. 

FREDERICK. 

Frederick  well  earned  the  title  of  Great.  By  his  achieve- 
ments he  showed  that  he  was  great  in  himself.  His  one 
chief  aim  was  to  make  Prussia  great,  and  in  this  he  was 
eminently  successful.  He  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the 
unity  of  Germany. 

In  the  prosecution  of  his  aim  he  won  the  high  distinction 
of  being  one  of  the  greatest  military  commanders  of  modern 
times.  Reduced  at  times  to  extreme  straits,  and  driven 

7 


98         REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

almost  to  despair,  he  recovered  himself  by  signal  victories 
over  his  numerous  and  powerful  foes. 

To  restore  to  prosperity  his  country,  devastated  and  im- 
poverished by  war,  he  gave  his  best  energies.  His  rule 
was  indeed  absolute,  yet  not  oppressive ;  for  he  sought 
not  merely  his  own  glory,  but  the  greatness  of  his  country 
and  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  He  was  not,  it  is  true, 
without  faults  ;  but  he  must  be  regarded,  take  him  all  in  all, 
as  one  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  of  modern  times. 

Works  of  Frederick  the  Great,  with  Memoirs  of  his  own  Time, 

and  with  Life,  trans.  (Lond.,  1789),  15  vols. 
Abbott's  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great.     Same,  Harper,  V.  40-42. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  455. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  p.  388. 
Carlyle's  Life  of. 
Coxe's  House  of  Austria,  3d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  V.  3,  Chap.  98- 

101,  111-117. 
Dodge:  i.  Great  Captains  (Bost.,  1889),  Lect.  5. 

2.  Frederick  (Great  Captains  S.). 
Dyer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  V.  4,  Chap.  45-47; 

see  also  esp.  pp.  227-228. 
Encyc.   Brit.,  8th  ed.,  10.  300;    gth  ed.,  9.  735,  10.  503-504, 

20.  9-1 1. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  2.  301-304. 
Lewis's  Hist,  of  Germany,  Chap.  22-24. 
Longman's  Frederick  the  Great  (Ep.  of  Hist.  S.). 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  43. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  5.  148.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  75.  218  (Am.  ed., 

p.  118).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  19.  97. 
Menzel's  Hist,  of  Germany,  trans.,  3.  49-83. 
Sainte  Beuve's  Monday  Chats,  trans.  (Chicago,  1877),  p.  248. 
Thiers's  Consulate  and  Empire,  trans.  (Philad.,  1878),  5.  746- 

749- 
Tuttle's  Hist,  of  Prussia  during  the  Reign  of  Frederick  the 

Great. 

Blackw.,  98.  38. 
Eel.  M.,  54.421. 
Ed.  R.,  7.  218;  110.  376  (Am.  ed.,  p.  192);  157.  384  (Am.  ed., 

p.  200).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  158.  131. 
For.  Q.,  14.  245. 
Fraser,  23.  559. 


BIOGRAPHY. 


99 


Harper,  18.  86;  25.  523. 

Nat.  R.,  7.  247.    Same,  Eel.  M.,  46. 49.   Same,  Liv.  Age,  69.403. 

No.  Am.,  26.  287  ;  88.  503. 

Penny  M.,  8.  292. 

Quar.,105.  275  (Am.  ed.,  p.    153);   134.  56  (Am.  ed.,  p.  30). 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  117.  60. 

Temp.  Bar,  76.  512.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  169.  387. 
Westm.,  17.  118;  38.  58. 

PETER. 

Peter  the  Great,  like  all  great  men  of  action,  owed  his 
greatness  both  to  native  genius  and  to  force  of  will.  With 
him  conception  was  followed  by  execution,  and  the  great- 
ness of  his  achievements  showed  the  greatness  of  his 
thought. 

His  life  was  dominated  by  a  single,  steadfast  purpose, 
by  which  it  must  be  judged,  to  make  his  country  a  great 
European  power,  and  to  start  it  on  a  new  career  of  pro- 
gressive civilization.  This  he  did  in  a  way  and  to  a  degree 
that  showed  the  originality,  the  capacity,  and  the  power  of 
his  genius. 

His  reforms,  radical  and  comprehensive,  gave  greater 
prominence  to  his  statesmanship  than  to  his  conquests. 
His  rule  was  despotic,  but  beneficent ;  and  despite  his 
severity,  or  even  cruelty,  he  seems  fairly  to  have  earned 
the  title  of  Father  of  his  Country. 

Jacob  Abbott's  Peter  the  Great. 

John  S.  C.  Abbott's  Empire  of  Russia,  Chap.  19-21. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  350. 

Barrow's  Peter  the  Great  (N.Y.,  1834). 

Dyer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  rev.  (Lond.,  1877),  V.  3-4,  Chap. 

41-44. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  19.  476-481  ;  9th  ed.,  18.  698,  21.  97. 
Kelley's  Hist,  of  Russia  (Lond.,  1875),  V.  i,  Chap.  20-31. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  42. 
Parton's  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men,  p.  426. 
Pursuit  of   Knowledge   under  Difficulties  (N.Y.,  1847),  V.  2, 

Chap.  2. 

Rambaud's  Hist,  of  Russia,  trans.,  V.  i,  Chap.  22  ;  V.  2,  Chap.  1-3. 
Schuylers  Peter  the  Great.     Same,  Scrib.  Mo.,  V.  19-22. 


100      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Stanley's  Eastern  Church,  Lect  12. 

Allan.,  52.  124. 

Dial  (Chicago),  5.4. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  15.  1 16. 

Liv.  Age,  138.  320. 

Nation,  38.  389,411. 

New  Eng  ,  43.  788. 

1 9th  Cent.,  4.  88. 

No.  Am.,  61.  269  (Motley). 

Penny  M.,  1.  342. 

Quar.,  158.  105. 

For  Peter  the  Great  may  be  substituted 

FREDERICK  II.   (HOHENSTAUFEN). 

Frederick  the  Second  was  one  of  the  most  striking 
figures  of  the  Middle  Ages.  His  individuality  was  most 
marked,  and  the  outline  of  his  character  stands  out  clear 
and  bold.  In  some  of  his  characteristics  he  is  similar  to 
his  modern  namesake.  His  life  was  chiefly  spent  in  a  strife 
with  the  Popes,  in  which  he  was  worsted. 

A  man  of  superior  intellect  and  of  various  learning,  he 
was  in  many  things  in  advance  of  his  time.  Ruling  with  a 
strong  hand,  he  in  manifold  ways  promoted  the  good  of  his 
subjects.  Despite  the  incongruities  of  his  character,  his 
influence  was  on  the  whole  favorable  to  spiritual  freedom, 
a  just  toleration,  and  the  promotion  of  general  intelligence. 

Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  pp.  207-210. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  374-378. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  9.  731. 

Fisher's  Outlines  of  Univ.  Hist.,  p.  280. 

Freeman's  Historical  Essays,!.  283.  Same,  No.  Brit.,  45.  370 
(Am.  ed.,  p.  197).  Same,  Eel.  M.,  68.  521. 

Hallam's  Middle  Ages  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  139-143. 

Kington's  Hist,  of  Frederick  the  Second,  Emperor  of  the  Ro- 
mans (Lond.,  1862). 

Lewis's  Hist,  of  Germany,  pp.  202-209. 

Michaud's  Hist,  of  the  Crusades  (Lond.,  1852,  and  N.  Y.,  1881), 
V.  2,  esp.  p.  490. 

Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  5,  esp.  pp.  322-324, 
501-505. 


BIOGRAPHY.  101 

Mosheim's  Eccles.  Hist.     See  Index. 
Neander's  Ch.  Hist.,  4.  176-185. 
Nat.  R.,  16.  507.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  59.  346. 
Quar.,  134.  56  (Am.  ed.,  p.  30),  The  Two  Fredericks.     Same, 
Liv.  Age,  117.  160. 


BISMARCK  AND  GLADSTONE. 
36.   Is  Bismarck  a  greater  statesman  than  Gladstone? 

Bismarck  and  Gladstone  represent  two  distinct  and  con- 
trasted types  of  statesmanship.  Bismarck  stands  more  for 
what  is,  Gladstone  more  for  what  ought  to  be ;  hence  the 
one  is  more  conservative,  the  other  more  liberal  and  pro- 
gressive. The  aim  of  the  one  is  the  maintenance  of  the 
strength  and  stability  of  the  government  in  order  to  the  pro- 
motion of  the  unity  and  greatness  of  the  nation ;  the  aim  of 
the  other  is  the  adaptation  of  the  government  and  of  legisla- 
tion alike  to  the  material  and  moral  wants  and  progress  of 
the  people. 

The  one  trusts  more  in  civil  authority  and  military  power, 
and  in  tact  and  diplomacy  ;  the  other  fixes  his  faith  on  moral 
principle  and  on  the  sure  progress  of  truth  and  of  right.  The 
results  accomplished  by  the  one  may  be  more  immediate, 
tangible,  and  imposing  ;  but  the  results  attained  by  the  other 
will  be  more  sure,  lasting,  and  beneficent.  Censure  as  well 
as  approval  of  both  will  be  found  in  the  references. 

BISMARCK. 

Bismarck  has  been  one  of  the  most  prominent  figures  in 
recent  political  history ;  and  whatever  may  be  the  estimate 
of  the  general  character  of  his  policy,  all  must  concede  his 
eminent  ability  as  a  statesman.  This  is  attested  by  his  work. 
With  a  single  and  resolute  aim  he  has  successfully  promoted 
the  union  of  Germany  and  the  supremacy  of  Prussia.  In 
the  prosecution  of  this  aim,  he  has  especially  distinguished 
himself,  in  his  foreign  policy,  by  his  wise  and  successful 
diplomacy. 

He  has  been  emphatically  a  man  of  the  times,  and  virtu- 


102      REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY  WORKERS. 

ally  and  actually  the  chief  ruler  of  his  people.  A  loyal  ser- 
vant of  his  royal  master,  and  faithful  to  what  he  believed  to 
be  the  true  interest  of  his  country,  he  has  ruled  with  a  strong 
hand,  and  has  sought  and  obtained  immediate  and  decisive  re- 
sults. In  all  this  he  has  shown  remarkable  sagacity  and  force. 
He  has  shaped  his  policy  to  match  the  times,  and  has 
thus  become  the  master  of  events  by  first  making  himself 
their  servant.  In  short,  in  his  statesmanship  will  is  the 
twin  of  intellect,  and  hence  shares  in  producing  and  in 
giving  character  to  his  success.  The  work  he  has  done 
is  substantial  and  permanent,  but  further  progress  will 
probably  require  principles  and  measures  more  liberal 
and  popular. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  665. 
Busch:  i.  Our  Chancellor. 

2.  Bismarck  in  the  Franco-German  War. 
Hesekiel's  Life  of  Bismarck  (N.  Y.,  1870). 
Klaczko's  Two  Chancellors. 

Miiller's  Political  Hist,  of  Recent  Times.  See  Index. 
Tuttle's  German  Political  Leaders  (Brief  Biographies). 
Atlan.,  49.  149  (Tuttle). 

Blackw.,  120.  448.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  138.  553. 
Chr.  Union,  1890,  Mar.  27,  pp.  438,  440. 
Contemp.,  61.  609  (Adverse). 

Ed.  R.,  130.  417  (Am.  ed.,  p.  212).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  104.  67. 
Ed.  R.,  139.  360  (Am.  ed.,  p.  185);  144.  203  (Am.  ed.  p.  105); 

161.  332. 
Fortn.,  5.  385,  600;  14.  631  ;  30.  765.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  92 

141.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  140.  195. 
Internat.  R.,  6.  425;  7.  661. 

Liv.  Age,  92.  250;  118.  381;  128.  637;  132.  305  :  139.  633. 
Nation,  1.  711;  7.  274;  11.233;  14.215:  35.  15,  in,  133, 439. 
1 9th  Cent.,  19.  448-450  (M.  Arnold). 
No.  Am.,  108.  165  ;  131.  i,  157  (Busch). 
Quar.,  130.  71  (Am.  ed.,  p.  38);  147.  113  (Am.  ed.,  p.  60). 
Westm.,  112.  444  (Am.  ed.,  p.  213);  125.  489. 

GLADSTONE. 

Gladstone  not  less  than  Bismarck,  though  in  a  somewhat 
different  way,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  leading  men 


BIOGRAPHY,  103 

of  his  times,  and  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  of  his  coun- 
try. His  eminent  fitness  for  a  public  career  was  early  mani- 
fested, and  all  his  life  he  has  held  prominent  and  influential 
positions  in  Parliament,  in  the  Cabinet,  or  as  Premier.  Be- 
ginning life  as  a  conservative,  he  developed  into  a  liberal ; 
and  he  has  been  a  good  representative,  during  the  influential 
part  of  his  career,  of  a  conservative  liberal,  progressive  but 
not  radical. 

In  him  reason  and  conscience  are  twin.  A  man  of 
thought  and  of  deep  moral  convictions,  he  is  not  more  led 
by  the  one  than  he  is  restrained  and  controlled  by  the 
other.  The  law  of  right,  of  justice,  of  love,  is  the  law  not 
less  of  his  public  than  of  his  private  life.  His  aim  is  ideal ; 
his  effort  practical,  to  make  his  ideal  actual.  He  endeavors 
to  apply  Christian  principles  to  public  affairs,  and  is  one  of 
the  best  examples  of  the  Christian  statesman.  Hence  his 
statesmanship  is  in  the  highest  sense  progressive.  It  is  in 
the  line  of  moral  progress.  If  his  course  does  not  seem  al- 
ways self-consistent,  he  has  the  higher  consistency  of  strict 
and  unshaken  fidelity  to  moral  principle.  He  is,  in  short, 
one  of  the  best  representatives  of  the  English  mind  in  its 
moral  and  practical  qualities,  and  the  great  leader  of  the 
English  people  in  their  gradual  but  sure  progress  toward 
democracy  in  the  state  and  in  society. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  832. 

Russell's  William  Ewart  Gladstone. 

Davidson's  Eminent  Eng.  Liberals  (Bost,  1880),  Chap.  i. 

Higgmson's  Eng.  Statesmen  (Brief  Biographies). 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times,  V.  i,  Chap.  24.     Also  see 

Index. 
Hugh  McCulloch's  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a  Century  (N.  YM 

1889),  pp.  479-48o. 

Smiles's  Brief  Biographies  (Am.  ed.),  p.  240. 
George  B.  Smith's  Life  of  Gladstone. 
Blackw.,  97.  240,  261. 
Brit.  Q.,  58.  189  (Am.  ed.,  p.  98);  61.  478  (Am.  ed.,  p.  257); 

71.  171  (Am.  ed.,  p.  88);  79.  i  ;  82.  i. 
Contemp.,  36.  398;  49.  609. 

Fortn.,  30.  568 ;  33.  26.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  144.  387. 
Fortn.,  42.  557.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  163.  643. 


104      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Forum,  4.  553  (Adverse). 

Internal.  R.,  5.  588 ;  8.  337. 

Liv.  Age,  12.  126;  157.  812. 

Nation,  13.  190;  20.  109;  30.  309;  44.  312,  441. 

Nat.  R.,  11.  219. 

!9th  Cent.,  17.  909;  19.  647-648,  650-658. 

No.  Am.,  136.  223 ;  142.  587. 

Putnam,  13.  287. 

Quar.,  158.  267;  161.  246. 


HOWARD  AND  WILBERFORCE. 
3  7.  Was  Howard  a  greater  philanthropist  than  Wilberforce  ? 

HOWARD. 

Howard  is  the  representative  Christian  philanthropist. 
Of  this  class  of  good  men  he  stands  at  the  head.  His 
greatness  was  achieved,  not  in  the  sphere  of  the  intel- 
lectual, but  in  that  of  the  moral.  With  a  practical  aim 
and  a  definite  purpose,  he  entered  an  untried  field,  in 
which,  with  unwearied  assiduity  and  quenchless  zeal,  he 
accomplished  his  great  work.  The  concentration  of  his 
effort,  and  the  steady  and  intense  energy  with  which  he 
infused  it,  made  it  fruitful  in  results.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
more  so  because  it  was  the  beginning  of  a  great  general 
movement,  which  should  revolutionize  the  treatment  of 
prisoners. 

Howard's  general  aim  was  to  make  justice  and  humanity 
the  controlling  principles  of  prison  management.  Disin- 
terestedness is  always  admirable  ;  but  when,  as  in  the  case 
of  Howard,  it  becomes  an  absorbing  passion  for  ameliorat- 
ing the  condition  of  the  outcast,  it  makes  the  subject  of  it 
an  illustrious  example  of  the  best  of  which  human  nature  is 
capable. 

Aiken's  Character  and  Public  Services  of  Howard. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  901. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  18. 

Bayne's  Christian  Life,  Pt.  2,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  2. 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi,  p.  400. 


BIOGRAPHY.  105 

Brown's  Memoirs  of  Howard.     The  same,  abr.  (Bost,  1830). 
Burke's  Works,  Bost.,  1871,  2.  387-388;   Harper's  ed.,  1854, 

1.  316. 
Carlyle's  Latter  Day  Pamphlets  (Bost.,  1855),  Model  Prisons, 

pp.  79-81. 

Dixon's  John  Howard  and  the  Prison  World  of  Europe. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  11.  782;  gth  ed.,  12.  319, 19.  747. 
Field's  Life  of. 

Foster's  Essays  (Lond.,  1873),  Decision  of  Character,  pp.  92-94. 
Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  4.  274-275. 
Knight's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Lond.),  7.  117-118. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (N.  Y.),  6.  245-261. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  4.  377. 
Mahon's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Bost.,  1854),  7.  341-345. 
Nicoll's  Great  Movements  (N.  Y.),  p.  1 1. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1026. 
Stoughton's  Life  of. 
Taylor's  Life  of. 

Blackw.,  67.  50.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  19.  338. 
Chr.  Obs.,  24.  363,  423;  50.  402. 
Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  3.  393. 
Eel.  R.,  90.  541. 
Nat.  M.,  4.  69. 
Penny  M.,  7.  212. 
Temp.  Bar,  48.  252. 

WlLBERFORCE. 

The  name  of  Wilberforce  is  inseparably  associated  with 
the  great  movement  in  England,  of  which  he  was  the 
leader,  for  the  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade.  In  the 
long  and  hard  fight  required  to  win  this  great  result  he 
manifested  a  steadfast  faith  and  an  unfaltering  purpose. 
His  position  and  popularity  as  member  of  Parliament,  to- 
gether with  his  eloquent  and  persistent  advocacy  of  the 
measure,  made  him  the  most  influential  of  all  its  sup- 
porters in  the  attainment  of  its  final  complete  triumph. 

Personally  he  was  not  only  possessed  of  an  amiable  dis- 
position, and  of  a  spirit  singularly  pure  and  sweet,  but  he 
exhibited  a  sincere  and  ardent  piety,  and  was  entirely  de- 
voted, in  all  that  he  was  and  possessed,  to  the  promotion 
of  the  welfare  of  his  fellow  men. 


106      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Life  of,  by  his  Sons  (Lond.,  1838),  5  vols. ;  see  Index,  Wilber- 

force  and  Slave  Trade.     The  same,  abr.  (Lond.,  1868),  I 

vol.     Correspondence  (Lond.,  1840). 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  3.  2714. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  619. 

Bayne's  Christian  Life,  PL  2,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3. 
Blake's  Hist,  of  Slavery  and  the  Slave  Trade,  Chap.  13-15. 
Brougham's  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,  1.  269. 
Clarkson's  Hist,  of  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade. 
Collier's  Memoir  of  (1855). 
Colquhoun's  William  Wilberforce :  his  Friends  and  his  Times 

(1866). 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  864;  9th  ed.,  24.  565. 
Harford's  Recollections  of  (Lond.,  1864). 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (N.  Y.),  6.  289-290. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  10.  985. 
Nicoll's  Great  Movements  (N.  Y.),  p.  48. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2520. 
Chr.  Exam.,  26.  191. 
Chr.  R.,  3.  511. 
Ed.  R.,  10.  199;   67.  142  (Am.  ed.,  p.  74);  68.  188  (Am.  ed., 

p.  101). 

Harper,  44.  733. 
Penny  M.,  7.  415,  427. 
Quar.,  62.  214. 


COLUMBUS   AND   LIVINGSTONE. 

38.  As  discoverer  and  as  man,  was  Columbus  greater  than 
Livingstone  ? 

The  name  of  Columbus  is  inseparably  associated  with  the 
discovery  of  America,  the  name  of  Livingstone  as  insepa- 
rably with  the  exploration  and  redemption  of  Africa ;  and 
their  purpose  and  achievement  have  given  to  both  alike  the 
lustre  of  a  fame  accorded  only  to  the  highest  merit. 

Columbus,  by  finding  its  unknown  half,  restored  the 
balance  of  the  world,  and  was  thus  one  of  God's  chief 
agents  in  ushering  in  the  modern  era.  But  Livingstone  in 
his  character  and  career  embodied  and  illustrated  the  high- 
est type  of  the  modern  spirit,  the  true  union  of  science  and 


BIOGRAPHY. 


ID/ 


religion.  He  thus  consecrated  science  by  showing,  in  a 
practical  way,  its  highest  end  in  promoting  the  spiritual 
good  of  man. 

Both  were  men  of  action,  and  of  thought  in  order  to  ac- 
tion. Both  were  sincerely  and  earnestly  religious ;  but  the 
religion  of  Livingstone  was  more  controlling  and  practical. 
The  mind  of  Columbus  was  more  ideal,  that  of  Livingstone 
more  practical.  Both  were  inspired  with  an  intense  devo- 
tion to  their  thought  and  purpose,  which,  in  co-operation  with 
Providence,  produced  the  largest  results. 

COLUMBUS. 

Columbus  was  a  prophet,  if  not  in  word,  yet  in  act.  He 
had  the  prophetic  instinct,  not  only  to  foresee,  but  to  take  the 
lead  in  bringing  about,  the  great  new  future.  If  his  view  was 
not  clear,  it  was  real.  High  as  was  his  imagination,  it  was 
far  exceeded  by  the  fact.  But  that  the  actual  world,  what- 
ever it  might  be,  was  larger  than  the  known  world,  he  felt 
sure. 

Columbus  was  the  one  man  who  doubled  the  world  by 
adding  the  new  half  to  the  old.  This  he  did  by  leading  the 
way ;  when  he  had  done  this,  it  was  easy  for  others  to  fol- 
low and  complete  the  work.  There  was  needed  more  room, 
more  room  for  the  growing  world,  for  the  new  civilization. 
The  new  world  added  an  ample  space  and  a  more  extended 
time.  The  old  flowed  into  the  new,  and  became  itself  new. 
The  enlarged  world  matched  well  the  enlarging  ideas,  and 
helped  to  promote  them. 

Now,  the  part  of  Columbus  was  to  enlarge  the  world. 
This  became  his  absorbing  thought  and  his  fixed  purpose. 
This  is  the  key  which  explains  his  life  and  himself.  All  that 
he  was  was  concentrated  on  this  one  thought  and  purpose. 
This  was  the  mission  of  his  life,  which  he  accepted  as  from 
God.  This  made  him,  in  the  largest  sense,  a  providential 
man,  to  fulfil  the  Divine  purpose  in  its  wide  scope  and  far- 
reaching  tendency.  Hence  the  loftiness  of  his  spirit.  He 
seemed  rather  ideal  than  practical.  And  yet  his  aim  was 
simple  and  direct.  He  knew  well  what  he  wanted,  and  how 


108      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

he  would  effect  his  purpose.  It  was  a  large  venture,  requir- 
ing a  corresponding  faith,  but  •'  it  was  not  without  reason ; 
and  the  reasons  for  his  faith  he  was  ready  to  give. 

It  is  this  fidelity  to  his  thought,  joined  with  the  splendor 
of  its  triumph,  which  has  lifted  Columbus  into  the  first  rank 
of  the  world's  heroes  and  benefactors.  His  name  is  insep- 
arably associated  with  the  most  momentous  event  of  his- 
tory, —  the  discovery  of  a  new  hemisphere.  Others  had 
indeed  discovered  it  before ;  but  he  discovered  it  anew,  at 
a  time  when  it  should  be  made  an  actual  part  of  the  world. 
The  time  was  laboring  to  bring  forth  great  events.  The 
spirit  of  the  time  wrought  in  him ;  and  he,  acting  from  the 
full  force  of  its  inspiration,  wrought,  not  for  the  time  alone, 
but  for  the  greater  future. 

C.  K.  Adams's  Christopher  Columbus  :  His  Life  and  his  Work. 

Makers  of  Am.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1892). 
Ap.  Cyc.  Am.,  5.  125. 
Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  696. 
Bryant  and  Gay's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1881),  V.  I,  Chap. 

5,6. 

Coffin's  Story  of  Liberty,  p.  97. 
Drake's  Our  Great  Benefactors,  p.  175. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  7.  155  ;  9th  ed.,  6.  171. 
Fiske's  Discovery  of  America  (Bost.,  1892). 
Aaron  Goodrich's  Hist,  of  the  Character  and  Achievements  of 

the  so-called  Christopher  Columbus  (N.  Y.,  1874).     Rev.  in 

Nat.  Q.,  31.  91. 

Grimshaw's  Hist,  of  So.  America,  p.  n. 
E.  E.  Hale:  I.  Life  of  (Chicago,  1891). 
2.  Stories  of  the  Sea,  p.  5. 
A.  Helps:   I.  Life  of  (Lond.). 

2.  Spanish  Conquest  in  America  (N.  Y.,  1856),  V.  I, 

Bk.  2. 

Hewlett's  Heroes  of  Europe,  p.  253. 
Higginson's  Book  of  Am.  Explorers,  p.  17. 
Irving's  Life  and  Voyages  of. 
Jeffrey's  Contributions  to  the  Ed.  R.,  4  vols.  in  I  (Philad.,  1854), 

p.  259.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  48.  i. 

Journal  of  the  Am.  Geog.  Soc.  of  N.  Y.,  1884,  V.  16,  p.  160. 
Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1854),  1.  141.     Same,  Acme  Biog.  (N.  Y.,  1880),  V.  I. 


BIOGRAPHY. 

Lives  of  Columbus  and  Vespucius  (N.  Y.). 

Low's  Maritime  Discovery,  1.  246. 

Lowell's  Poems,  Household  ed.  (Bost.,  1881),  p.  56. 

C.  Paul  MacKie's  With  the  Admiral  of  the  Ocean  Sea  :  a  Nar- 
rative of  the  First  Voyage  to  the  Western  World,  drawn 
mainly  from  the  Diary  of  Christopher  Columbus  (A.  C. 
McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1891).  Rev.  in  Dial  (Chicago), 
12.  76  ;  Nation,  53.  91. 

Mavor's  Gen.  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels  (Loncl.,  1813), 
V.  i,  pp.  1-81. 

Memorials  of  Columbus,  trans.  (Lond.,  1823).     Rev.  in  No.  Am., 

18.415- 

Parton's  Illustrious  Men,  p.  771. 

Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  V.  2,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  16,  18; 
Pt.  2,  Chap.  8.  V.  3,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  18. 

Robertson's  Hist,  of  America,  Bk.  2. 

S.  Rogers's  Poetical  Works,  Voyage  of  Columbus. 

St.  John's  Life  of. 

F.  Tarducci's  Life  of  Christopher  Columbus,  nfter  the  latest 
Documents  ;  from  the  Italian,  by  H.  F.  Brownson  of  De- 
troit, Mich.  (1890).  Rev.  in  Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  22.  70. 

U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  Rep.  1880,  App.,  Nos.  18,  19, 
pp.  346-417  (First  Landing-place  of). 

Jules  Verne's  Explorations  of  the  World.  Famous  Travels  and 
Travellers,  trans..  (N.  Y.,  1879),  Pt.  i,  Chap.  7. 

A.  J.  Weise's  Discoveries  of  America  to  the  year  1525  (N.  Y., 
1884),  Chap.  3-5. 

Winsor:  i.  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist,  of  America  (Bost.  and  N.  Y., 

1886),  V.  2,  Chap,  i,  pp.  1-92. 

2.  Christopher  Columbus,  and  how  he  received  and 
imparted  the  Spirit  of  Discovery  (Bost.,  1891). 
Rev.  in  Dial  (Chicago),  12.  265  ;  Lit.  W.  (Bost.), 
22.  393- 

Am.  Cath.  Q.,  12.  385  (Estimate  of  his  Life  and  Work). 

Blackw.,  81.  626  (Poem). 

Chr.  Obs.,  61.  430.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  72.  359. 

Eel.  M.,  59.  359. 

Ed.  R.,  27.  492. 

Godey,  49.  37-528  (Life  of). 

Good  Words,  24.  240,  389. 

Harper,  38,  721  (J.  S.  C.  Abbott);  42.  425,  527  (An  Exami- 
nation of  the  Claims  of  Columbus :  Depreciatory) ;  54.  i 
(Home  of). 

Independent,  1892,  June  2. 


IIO      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lippinc.,  48.  502  (First  Land  discovered  by). 

Liv.  Age,  17.  355. 

Mag.  Am.  Hist.,  9.  53,  240 ;  23.  406 ;  25.  293  (Poem). 

Month.,  28.  168,  257,  389;  29.  29,  137. 

Nation,  7.  417  (Rev.  of  Irving's  Life  of);  39.  160  (Winsor); 

46.   158. 

No.  Am.,  21.  398 ;  24.  265  ;  28.  103  (Rev.  of  Irving's  Life  of). 
Overland,  N.  s.,  1.  42. 

LIVINGSTONE. 

Livingstone  is  the  great  missionary  traveller.  His  work 
as  a  missionary  was  that  of  exploration  ;  a  necessary  pioneer 
work,  to  which  he  was  providentially  called,  and  for  which 
he  was  eminently  fitted.  Thus,  without  ceasing  to  be  in 
heart  and  purpose  a  missionary,  he  became  in  fact  an  ex- 
plorer ;  and  by  this  means  he  not  only  prepared  the  way 
for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  but  made  large  contributions 
to  scientific  and  general  knowledge,  and  added  vast  tracts 
of  territory  to  the  known  world.  Though  but  one  of  many 
African  explorers,  all  things  considered,  he  may  be  regarded 
as  the  greatest ;  so  that  for  the  knowledge  and  regeneration 
of  Africa  more  is  due  to  him  than  to  any  other  man.  His 
work  was,  therefore,  original,  comprehensive,  and  prepara- 
tory. He  followed  his  own  thought,  as  led  by  Providence ; 
and  that  thought  was  large,  embracing  the  whole  continent, 
while  it  had  respect  to  the  material  as  this  was  subordinated 
to  and  promotive  of  the  spiritual. 

It  is  in  this  supremacy  of  the  moral  that  the  high  and 
distinctive  character  of  Livingstone's  work  appears.  Hence 
one  of  his  chief  aims  was  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade, 
and  toward  the  effecting  of  this  his  influence  was  beyond 
estimate.  Thus  his  missionary  spirit  was  rather  increased 
than  diminished,  taking  a  form  large  and  influential.  He 
appears  as  a  new  character,  a  traveller  with  a  supreme 
moral  purpose,  aiming  at  and  securing  the  highest  results 
in  their  due  relation  to  the  lower. 

And  in  the  effecting  of  these  results  his  own  personal  char- 
acter was  no  mean  factor.  He  thus  stands  as  a  noble  ex- 
ample of  the  ideal  traveller  and  missionary.  There  was  in 


BIOGRAPHY.  1 1 1 

him  a  like  devotion  to  the  subordinate  and  to  the  supreme 
work ;  to  the  end  in  the  means,  to  the  means  for  the  sake 
of  the  end.  He  knew  his  work,  and  performed  it  with  con- 
scientious fidelity  and  perseverance.  He  knew  men,  and 
dared  to  trust  them  even  though  they  seemed  unworthy  of 
trust.  His  faith  in  men  was  a  faith  of  love,  and  excited  in 
those  toward  whom  it  was  exercised  a  corresponding  trust 
and  affection.  His  was  the  true  policy,  the  policy  of  prin- 
ciple and  of  sincere  love.  He  fairly  earned  such  treatment 
by  others  as  he  had  freely  accorded,  and  won  beside  that 
which  he  had  not  sought,  the  universal  admiration  paid  to 
the  highest  merit. 

His  life  was  simple  and  heroic,  disinterested  and  fruit- 
ful in  the  largest  good  to  Africa  and  to  the  world ;  and 
the  value  and  estimation  of  his  work  will  increase  with 
the  growing  importance  of  Africa  as  a  part  of  the  great 
world. 

Livingstone's   Missionary   Travels  and  Researches   in   South 

Africa. 

Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi. 
Last  Journals  of  Livingstone  in  Central  Africa. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  547. 
W.  G.  Blaikie:  i.  Personal  Life  of  Livingstone. 

2.  Leaders  in  Mod.  Philanthropy,  pp.  187-204. 
Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (Lond.  and  Edin.,  1890),  6.  669. 
J.  E.  Chambliss's  Lives  and  Travels  of  Livingstone  and  Stanley. 
Mrs.  E.  R.  Charles's  Three  Martyrs  of  the  I9th  Cent.,  pp.  3- 

154- 
E.  H.  Eden's  Africa  seen  through  its  Explorers,  pp.  177-227 

and  280-317. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  14.  720. 

Famous  Boys,  and  how  they  became  Great  Men,  pp.  237-261. 
Thos.  Hughes's  Livingstone  (Eng.  Men  of  Action  S.,  Lond.  and 

N.Y.,  1889). 
Journal  of  the  Am.  Geog.  Soc.  of  N.  Y.,   1874,  V.  6,  p.  169 

(Memorial  Addresses). 

A.  P.  Stanley's  Westminster  Sermons    (N.  Y.,  1882),  p.  197 

(The  Mission  of  the  Traveller.     Memorial  Sermon). 
H.  M.  Stanley's  How  I  found  Livingstone. 

B.  Taylor's  Cyc.  of  Mod.  Travel,  V.  2,  pp.  960-996. 


112       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Am.  J.  Sci.,  99.  14. 

Appleton,  8.  337. 

Brit.  Q.,  27.  105  ;  59.  487.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  82.  655.  Same, 
Liv.  Age,  121.  327. 

Brit.  Q.,  61.  395.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  125.  451. 

Chr.  Obs.,  58.48;  75.  14. 

Eel.  M.,  66.  638. 

Ev.  Sat.,  13.  662. 

Fortn.,  4.  96  (Dr.  Livingstone's  Errors). 

Eraser,  86.  614.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  96.  Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo., 
2.  327. 

Harper,  16.  304  ;  32.  709. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  20.  171. 

Liv.  Age,  52.  769;  55.  802  ;  56.  i. 

Macmil  ,  31.  281.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  84.  466.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
124.  617. 

Nation,  20.  175  ;  32.  63.  (•'  Three  ideas  dominated  his  career  : 
first,  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Africa ;  second,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  slave  trade  ;  third,  geographical  exploration  ; 
the  last  two  growing  imperceptibly  but  steadily  out  of  his 
zeal  for  the  first,  but  all  three  being  retained  in  undiminished 
force  to  the  day  of  his  death.") 

Nature,  6.  137,  184,  257,  287 ;  9.  318,  424,  463,  486 ;  23.  238. 

Ouar.,  138.  498. 

Scrib.  Mo.,  5.  298. 


ALFRED    THE    GREAT   AND   WASHINGTON. 
39.  Was  Alfred  the  Great  as  great  and  good  as  Washington  ? 

Alfred  the  Great  and  Washington  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  few  rulers  in  whom  greatness  and  goodness 
are  coincident.  The  admiration  which  they  excite  is  not 
less  for  moral  than  for  intellectual  qualities.  The  moral 
qualities  exalt  and  give  grandeur  to  the  intellectual. 

The  impression  that  is  made  is  that  of  a  noble  and  ex- 
alted character,  manifested  not  only  in  great  and  decisive, 
but  in  beneficent  action.  Hence  there  is  a  striking  like- 
ness in  these  two  men,  so  that  in  many  points  they  match 
each  other  both  in  character  and  life. 


BIOGRAPHY.  1 1 3 

ALFRED. 

Alfred  the  Great  impresses  by  the  completeness,  har- 
mony, and  perfection  of  his  personal  character.  The  su- 
premacy of  his  higher  qualities  gives  his  character  unity, 
and  saves  it  from  the  incongruity  which  is  found  in  most 
great  men. 

Courageous  in  battle,  in  extremity  not  despairing,  a  wise 
legislator,  he  was  actuated  by  the  purest  patriotism  and  by 
a  disinterested  zeal  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  He 
was  a  model  ruler,  intelligent  and  practical;  and  in  the 
promotion  of  the  good  of  others  he  found  his  own. 

Thus  his  whole  life  was  raised  to  a  high  plane,  and  all 
his  acts  took  their  character  from  the  lofty  motives  which 
prompted  them. 

The  utility  he  sought  was  not  low,  but  on  the  plane  of  his 
own  character.  It  was  less  material  than  intellectual  and 
moral.  He  sought  to  raise  others  to  his  own  height.  His 
learning  he  used  for  the  elevation  of  his  people,  and  his 
writings  were  for  their  instruction.  In  a  word,  all  that 
he  was  in  himself  he  was,  with  fixed  purpose,  for  others. 

The  Whole  Works  of  King  Alfred,  Jubilee  ed.  (Ox.  and  Camb., 

1852),  2  VOls. 

Abbott's  Hist,  of  King  Alfred. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  49. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  1.  298. 

Church's  Story  of  Early  Britain,  Chap.  19,  20. 

Dickens's  Child's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  Chap.  3. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  2.  480;  9th  ed.,  1.  506. 

Freeman:  I.  Old   English    Hist.,  3d  ed.  rev.    (Lond.,   1873), 

Chap.  8,  sec.  5. 
2.  The  Norman  Conquest,  26.  ed.  rev.  (Ox.,  1870), 

1.  45-52  ;  rev.  Am.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1873),  1.  31-36. 

(4*  The  most  perfect  character  in  history.  ") 
Green  :  I.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Bk.  i, 
Chap.  3,  pp.  74-82. 

2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Chap,  i,  sec.  5. 

3.  The  Conquest  of  Eng.,  Chap.  4. 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  Chap.  3. 
Hughes's  Alfred  the  Great. 

8 


114      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i,  Chap.  2,  pp.  59-76. 
Knight:   i.  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Eng:  ed.),  V.  i,  Chap.  8. 

2.  Half-Hours  of  Eng.  Hist.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.),  1.  106. 
Lingard's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  i,  Chap.  4. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  2,  Lect.  15. 
Miller's  Hist,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  (Lond.,  1872),  Chap.  21-23. 
Palgrave's  Hist,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  (Lond.,  1871),  Chap.  6-9. 
Pauli's  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,  trans.  (Lond.,  1853). 
Pearson's  Hist,  of  Eng.  during  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages 

(Lond.,  1867). 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  57. 
Turners  Hist,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  7th  ed.  (Lond.,  1852),  1. 

332-336. 
Kcl.  M.,  56.  24. 

Eraser,  45.  74.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  25.  308. 
Nat.  Q.,  21.  201. 
No.  Am.,  75.  208. 

No.  Brit..  17.  145  (Am.  ed.,  p.  78). 
Penny  M.,  5.  29,  54. 

WASHINGTON. 

The  fame  of  Washington  is  world-wide  and  perpetual, 
clear  and  bright,  spontaneously  awarded  to  a  character 
singularly  pure  and  elevated,  disinterested  and  patriotic, 
of  commanding  dignity  and  genuine  simplicity.  Such  a 
character  inspires  with  feelings  of  trust,  admiration,  and 
reverence ;  and  all  these  have  been  given  to  Washington  in 
large  measure.  The  qualities  which  beget  trust  —  strength, 
wisdom,  integrity,  benevolence  —  were  mingled  in  his  char- 
acter in  due  and  harmonious  proportion. 

He  was  self-contained,  self-reliant,  self-sufficing ;  he  was 
prudent,  and,  if  not  quick  in  judgment,  sure  and  safe ;  he 
was  brave  and  fearless,  patient  and  enduring,  of  tenacious 
purpose  and  firm  will ;  one  born  to  command  and  to  lead, 
yet  without  egotism,  pretension,  or  selfish  ambition.  He 
had  force,  but  it  was  restrained  or  reserved,  held  in  check, 
held  in  hand,  controlled  and  used  by  reason,  judgment,  and 
conscience.  He  was  master  of  himself,  and  by  this  was  best 
fitted  to  be  the  master  of  others.  He  took  his  place,  both 
as  General  and  as  President,  not  as  seeking  or  desiring,  but 


BIOGRAPHY,  115 

as  called  to  it ;  he  kept  it  as  a  duty  and  relinquished  it  as  a 
relief.  Duty  was  the  controlling  motive  of  his  life,  fidelity 
one  of  its  chief  characteristics. 

Writings  of  Washington,  edited  by  Sparks,  with  Life  (Bost., 
1834-37),  12  vols. 

Complete  Works,  edited  by  Ford. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  3.  2596  (Gives  "opinions  of  emi- 
nent authorities  "). 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  483. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  6.  373-382. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  old  ed.,  7.  393-403;  rev.  ed. 
(N.Y.,  1884),  4.  205-212. 

Brougham's  Miscellanies  (Philad.,  1841),  1.  241-243. 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Memorial  and  Biographical  Sketches,  p.  283. 

Chappel  and  Duyckinck's  Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  (N.  Y.,  1862), 
1.59. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  740,  by  Edward  Everett  ("The  great- 
est of  good  men,  and  the  best  of  great  men  ")  ;  9th  ed.,  24. 
387. 

Everett's  Orations,  1.  564 ;  4.  3. 

Green:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  V-4,  Bk.  9, 

Chap.  2,  pp.  254-255. 

2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  Bk. 
10,  sec.  2,  p.  742. 

Hale's  Life  of  Washington  studied  anew  (N.  Y.  and  Lond., 
1888),  esp.  Chap.  15. 

Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  5.  337~339- 

Irving's  Life  of  (N.  Y.,  1865),  5.  299-302;  (Philad.,  1870),  5. 
340-342.  The  same  abr.  by  Fiske  (1888). 

Lodge's  Washington  (Am.  Statesman  S.),  2  vols. 

Lossing's  Field  Book  of  the  Revolution.     See  Index. 

Marshall's  Life  of  (Philad.,  1807),  5.  773-7795  (Lond.,  1807),  5. 
834-841- 

Theo.  Parker's  Historic  Americans,  p.  75. 

Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  120-126. 

Sparks's  Life  of  Washington  (Bost.,  1853),  pp.  49°~493-  The 
same  abr.,  2  vols.  in  I  (Aub.,  1853),  2.  339. 

Thomas's  Diet,  of  Biog.,  new  ed.,  rev.  (Philad.,  1890),  p.  2431. 

Webster's  Works,  1.  219. 

Whipple's  Character  and  Characteristic  Men,  p.  293. 
Independent,  1889,  Washington  No.,  Apr.  25,  pp.  1-18,  22-24. 
No.  Am.,  83.  1 1.         Penny  M.,  5.  70- 


Il6     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


LINCOLN  AND   WASHINGTON. 

40.   Can  Lincoln  justly  be  called  as  great  a  benefactor  to  his 
country  as  Washington  ? 

In  the  case  of  both  Lincoln  and  Washington,  the  man 
was  equal  to  the  emergency ;  and  the  service  rendered  by 
each  met  the  urgent  want,  and  was  of  incalculable  value. 
Each  was  in  the  highest  sense  a  providential  man,  raised  up 
for  the  time  and  furnished  with  the  qualities  which  fitted 
him  for  his  eminent  duties.  Each  was  richly  endowed  with 
those  moral  qualities  which  justify  implicit  confidence,  es- 
pecially with  integrity,  or  a  single  and  fixed  purpose  to  ad- 
here to  the  true  and  the  right.  Each,  burdened  with  a  deep 
sense  of  the  gravity  of  the  issues,  for  this  very  reason  acted 
with  the  utmost  prudence,  which  proved  to  be  true  wisdom. 
With  equal  wisdom,  each,  when  the  time  had  come,  struck 
a  blow  which  made  sure  the  end.  They  did  not,  then,  so 
much  make  as  shape  events ;  waiting  for  and  seizing  op- 
portunities, they  made  the  most  of  them.  Each  was  alike 
distinguished  for  patriotism,  fidelity  to  duty,  courage  in  dan- 
ger, firmness  and  fortitude  in  trial,  and  dependence  on  the 
I  )ivine  wisdom  and  guidance. 

The  great  work  accomplished  by  Washington  was,  first, 
the  successful  maintenance,  despite  their  weakness  and  want 
of  resources  and  of  unity,  of  the  independence  of  the  Colo- 
nies ;  and,  secondly,  the  wise  administration,  in  its  begin- 
ning, of  the  Federal  Government,  by  which  the  nation  was 
well  started  on  its  great  career. 

Lincoln's  great  work  was  to  restore  the  dissevered  union, 
to  guide  the  country  safely  through  the  tempestuous  scenes 
of  a  terrible  civil  war,  and  to  rid  the  land  of  the  blighting 
curse  of  slavery. 

LINCOLN. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  489. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1861-1865.     See  Index. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  715  (Hay). 


BIOGRAPHY.  117 

Arnold's  Life  of,  esp.  Chap.  26. 

Beecher's  Patriotic  Addresses  (N.Y.,  1889),  p.  701. 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  V.  I,  Chap.  13-25,  esp.  pp. 

546-549. 

Carpenter's  Six  Months  at  the  White  House. 
Debates  of  Lincoln  and  Douglass  (Columbus,  O.,  1860). 
Emerson's  Miscellanies,  p.  305.      Complete  Works,  Kiv.  ed., 

V.  II.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  85.  282. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  14.  658  (Nicolay). 
Garfield's  Works,  2.  533.     . 
Holland's  Life  of,  esp.  pp.  515,  541-544. 
Leland's  Life  of,  esp.  Chap.  13. 
Lowell:  I.  My  Study  Windows,  p.  150. 

2.  Commemoration  Ode,  6th  stanza. 
Nicolay  and  Hay's  Abraham  Lincoln.    A  History  (N.Y.,  1890), 

10  vols.     Same  in  part,  Cent.,  V.  11-17. 
Raymond's  Life,  Pub.  Services,  and  State  Papers  of  (1865),  esp. 

pp.  715-724. 
Reminiscences  of,  by  Distinguished  Men  of  his  Time,  ed.  by 

A.  T.  Rice. 

Schurz's  Abraham  Lincoln.     Same,  Atlan.,  67.  721. 
Sumncr's  Works,  9. 367  (Eulogy  of,  compares  with  Washington). 
Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power  in  America.     See 

Index. 

Atlan.,  37.  21  ;  41.  366,  454;  58.  556. 
Fortn.,  1.  56. 
Hours  at  Home,  1.  184. 

Liv.  Age,  80.  282 ;  84.  426 ;  85.  284  (Bancroft)  ;  87.  596  (Ban- 
croft's Oration). 
Nation,  52.  13,  34. 

No.  Am.,  100.  i  ;  138.  263  ;  141.  307,  454,  528. 
Quar.,  173.  333. 

For  References  on  Washington  see  the  preceding  question. 


FRANKLIN. 

41.  Should  Franklin  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  American  ? 

Franklin  had  a  genius,  original  and  various,  which  was 
early  manifested  and  unfolded  itself  naturally  and  steadily 
through  a  long  life.  He  rose  easily  from  a  low  position  to 


Il8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

the  highest  point  of  greatness  and  of  fame.  His  inward  and 
his  outward  greatness  were  correspondent  and  well  matched. 
His  innate  greatness  was  not  single,  but  manifold,  not  con- 
centrated, but  divided.  It  made  him  great  as  a  thinker  and 
writer,  as  a  scientific  discoverer,  as  a  statesman  and  diplo- 
matist, —  great  in  wisdom,  in  practical  sagacity,  and  in  his 
service  to  mankind. 

His  service  to  his  country  in  the  most  critical  period  of 
its  history  was  in  its  importance  second  to  that  of  none 
other.  If  success  depended  on  Washington,  it  depended 
not  less  on  Franklin.  Each  filled  his  place,  and  performed 
his  part  as  could  no  other  one ;  and  the  part  of  one  was  of 
equal  necessity  and  importance  with  the  part  of  the  other. 
Their  spheres  were  apart,  but  their  respective  services  com- 
plementary ;  only  both  together  could  make  a  whole.  Wash- 
ington in  the  field,  Franklin  at  court,  were  the  two  great 
leaders  who,  by  prudence  and  sagacity,  by  courage  and  per- 
severance, made  the  final  victory  sure  and  complete. 

Franklin  had  an  eminently  practical  mind,  with  a  view, 
in  all  thought  and  action,  to  utility.  He  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  this  class  of  minds,  and  in  this  is  found  his  great 
service  to  society.  Nor  was  this  service  of  a  low  order.  If 
not  of  the  highest,  it  was  yet  of  great  importance.  But  the 
life  of  Franklin  was  not  merely  large  and  fruitful.  It  was 
not  on  a  low  plane.  He  had  his  own  ideal,  and  more  than 
most  men  made  it  actual ;  and  this  he  did  by  true  wisdom. 
He  was  a  sage  if  not  a  saint ;  though  prudent  he  was  neither 
worldly  nor  selfish.  He  rose  by  his  own  merit,  and  not  by 
self-seeking  or  ambition.  His  power  was  intellectual  and 
moral,  and  was  exercised  for  the  good  of  others.  He  is  one 
of  the  best  examples  of  a  self-made  man,  and  in  the  breadth 
of  his  sympathy  and  the  simplicity  of  his  manners  he  was  a 
typical  republican  and  American. 

The  kind,  if  not  the  degree,  of  success  he  attained  is  pos- 
sible to  all ;  hence  his  life  is  not  simply  for  admiration,  but 
is  a  stimulus  and  an  encouragement.  He  is  on  the  plane 
of  the  common  people,  and  his  wisdom  and  virtue  are  like 
theirs. 


BIOGRAPHY. 

Works,  with  Life  and  notes  by  Sparks  (Bost,  1840),  10  vols. 
Complete  Works.    Compiled  and  edited  by  John  Bigelow  (N.  Y., 

1887-88),  10  vols. 
Life  of,  written  by  himself.     Edited  by  John  Bigelow  (Philad., 

1875),  3  vols- 

J.  S.  C.  Abbott's  Benj.  Franklin. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  629. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  435. 
Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  2.  526  (John  Fiske). 
Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (Bost.,  1841),  3.  376-380.     Last 

rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1883),  2.  259-261.     See  Index. 
Brennan's  Pop.  Exposition  of  Electricity,  p.  63. 
Briggs's  Homes  of  Am.  Statesmen,  p.  65. 
Brougham's  Statesmen  of  the  Times  of  Geo.  III.  (Lond.,  1839), 

1.  314. 

Bryant's  Prose  Writings,  2.  329  (as  Poet). 
Arabella  B.  Buckley's  Short  Hist,  of  Nat.  Sci.  (N.  Y.,  1876),  p. 

253- 

T.  A.  Buckley's  Dawnings  of  Genius,  p.  353. 

S.  A.  Drake's  Our  Great  Benefactors,  p.  339. 

Chappel  and   Duyckinck's    Nat.    Portrait  Gallery  of  Eminent 
Americans  (N.  Y.,  1862),  2  vols.,  1.  9. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  10.  289  ;  9th  ed.,  9.  711. 

Everett's  Orations,  2.  I  ;  4.  108. 

Foster's  Crit.  Essays,  2.  411. 

P.  L.  Ford's  Franklin  Bibliography. 

Hale's  Franklin  in  France  (Bost.,  1888),  2  vols. 

Hawthorne's  Biographical  Stories,  p.  66. 

H.  Howe's  Eminent  Mechanics,  p.  37. 

Jefferson's  Writings  (Wash.,  1854),  8.  497. 

Jeffrey's  Contributions  to  the  Ed.  R.,  4  vols.  in  I  (Philad.,  1854), 
p.  60.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  8.  327. 

McMaster:  i.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  421-423. 

2.  Benj.  Franklin  (Am.  Men  of  Letters  S.,  Bost., 
1887). 

Morse's  Benj.  Franklin  (Am.  Statesmen  S.).    Rev.  in  Lit.  W. 
(Bost.),  20.  348. 

Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  of  Distinguished  Americans,  with   Bio- 
graphical Sketches,  4  vols.  (Philad.,  1854),  2.  I. 

Theo.  Parker's  Historic  Americans  (Bost.,  1878),  p.  13. 

Parton  :  i.  Life  and  Times  of  (N.  Y.,  1864),  2  vols. 

2.  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men,  p.  128.     (Was he  mean?) 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Chap.  5. 

W.  Russell's  Extraordinary  Men  and  Women,  p.  87. 


120      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Sainte-Beuve's  Eng.  Portraits  (N.  Y.),  p.  47- 

Sanderson's  Biog.  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, rev.  ed.  (Philad.,  1876),  p.  393. 

Seymour's  Self-made  Men  (N.  Y.,  1858),  p.  428. 

W.  Stebbing's  Some  Verdicts  of  Hist,  reviewed,  p.  259. 

Sumner's  Works,  3.  i. 

W.  C  Taylor's  Mod.  Brit.  Plutarch,  p.  152. 

Timbs's  Great  Inventors,  p.  73. 

Mrs.  L.  C.  Tuthill,  The  Mechanic,  p.  51  (Success  in  Life  S.). 

Wi nth rop's  Addresses  and  Speeches,  2.  122,  258. 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  27.  401  ;  28.  809  (Education  and  Educational 
Work  of). 

Atlan.,  27.  207. 

Chr.  Exam.,  66.  265.     (What  made  Franklin  ?) 

Contemp.,  35.  581  (Thos.  Hughes).  Same,  Liv.  Age,  142.  298. 
Same,  Lippinc.,  24.  108. 

Eel.  M.,  62.  367. 

Ed.  R.,  28.  275  (Jeffrey)  ;  151.  321. 

Harper,  4.  145,  289;  37.  274  (G.  W.  Curtis);  61.  265  (Frank- 
lin's Place  in  the  Science  of  the  last  Century  :  Draper). 

Internat.  R.,  2.  692. 

Lond.  Q.,  23.  483.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  84.  289.  (Somewhat  de- 
preciatory.) 

Meth.  Q.,  7.  101  (His  Discoveries  in  Electricity). 

No.  Am.,  7.  289  (Somewhat  depreciatory) ;  37.  249  (His  Familiar 
Letters) ;  59.  446  (F.  Bowenj ;  83.  402  (Character  of). 


HAMILTON   AND  JEFFERSON. 
42.    Was  Hamilton  a  greater  statesman  than  Jefferson  ? 

Hamilton  and  Jefferson,  considered  as  statesmen,  repre- 
sent respectively  two  distinct  elements  of  the  American 
government,  order  and  freedom.  In  order  to  the  first, 
Hamilton  saw  clearly  the  necessity  of  power  in  the  gov- 
ernment, and  also  of  the  firm  union  of  all  the  States,  in 
order  to  constitute  one  strong  nation.  A  nation  was  to  be 
formed  from  many  States,  with  separate  governments,  united 
under  one  supreme  national  government.  To  Hamilton  be- 
longs the  transcendent  merit  of  contributing  more  largely 


BIOGRAPHY.  121 

than  any  other  man  to  the  effecting  of  this  important 
result. 

Jefferson's  mind,  on  the  other  hand,  was  absorbed  with 
the  thought  of  freedom,  of  popular  rights,  and  of  local  gov- 
ernment. These  it  was  his  part  to  guard  and  transmit 
unimpaired. 

These  distinct  elements  of  the  government,  being  thus 
maintained,  have  in  due  time  attained  a  development 
proportionate  and  harmonious. 

HAMILTON. 

To  Hamilton  belongs  the  proud  distinction  of  having 
contributed  more  than  any  other  one  man  to  the  formation 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  which  bound  the  several  States 
together  in  one  great  nation ;  and  this  most  important  ser- 
vice places  him  at  the  head  of  American  statesmen.  The 
Federal  Constitution  is  not  indeed  traceable,  in  its  origin,  to 
his  sole  thought ;  but  it  was  his  thought,  conveyed  in  lucid 
expression,  which  did  most  to  give  it  form  and  substance. 

His  influence  was  likewise  potent  in  securing  its  adop- 
tion;  and  in  its  operation  it  was  his  profound  and  com- 
prehensive intellect  which  gave  it  a  broad  and  liberal 
construction,  and  formulated  a  policy  which  should  stand 
the  test  of  time.  That  which  was  the  supreme  necessity 
of  the  time,  and  indeed  of  all  subsequent  times,  —  a  strong 
and  stable  national  government,  —  found  in  him  its  ablest 
advocate. 

The  Federal  Government,  then,  in  its  form  and  operation, 
must  be  considered,  in  its  main  features,  as  the  monument 
of  Hamilton's  genius. 

Works  of,  ed.  by  Lodge  (N.  Y.,  1885),  9  vols. 

The  Federalist. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  8.  415. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  56  (Lodge). 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  V.  5,  6.    See 

Index. 
Chappel  and  Duyckinck's  Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  (N.  Y.,  1862),  1. 

147. 


122      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Elliott's  Debates  (New  York),  V.  2,  pp.  23-39,  5r-59>  62-64, 

300-307,  315-321,  347-357,  360-375. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  11.  412  (Shea). 
John  C.  Hamilton  :   i.  Life  of  (1834-40),  2  vols. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Republic  of  the  U.  S.,  as 

traced  in  the  Writings  of  (1850),  7  vols. 

Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  V.  4,  5,  esp.  4.  296- 

297,  5.  526-527. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  i,  Chap.  3. 
Johnston's   United  States:  its  Hist,  and  Constitution  (N.  Y., 

1889),  sec.  147-149,  pp.  124-126.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  23. 

754-755- 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  434. 
Lodge:   i.  Hamilton  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 

2.  Studies  in  Hist.,  p.  132.     Same,  No.  Am.,  123.  113. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  V.  4,  Lect  46. 
McMaster's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  i,  2,  esp.  1.  125-126. 
Moore's  Am.  Eloquence  (N.  Y.,  1872),  1.  559  (Otis's  Eulogy). 
Morse's  Life  of  (Bost.,  1876),  2  vols. 
Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  1,2,  esp.  2,  63-65. 
Shea's  Life  and  Epoch  of,  2  vols. 
Smucker's  Life  and  Times  of  (Bost.  and  Chicago,  1857),  esp 

Chap.  19. 

W.  G.  Sumner's  Alexander  Hamilton  (Makers  of  Am.  S.> 
Atlan.,  16.  625. 

Liv.  Age,  81.  613  (and  Jefferson). 
Nation,  34.  444. 

New  York  R.,  8.  121.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  8.  425. 
Nat.  Q.,  28.  120. 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  5.  i. 
Unita.  R.,  5.  631. 

JEFFERSON. 

Jefferson  stands  as  the  representative  of  the  principle 
and  sentiment  of  American  democracy.  Hence  he  favored 
the  largest  individual  freedom  consistent  with  the  general 
welfare,  together  with  a  corresponding  abridgment  of  the 
powers  of  the  government.  The  rights  of  the  States  he 
jealously  guarded  against  any  encroachment  by  the  Federal 
Government. 

He  was,  therefore,  the  stanch  upholder  of  freedom,  not 
as  opposed  to  order,  or  as  unrestrained ;  yet  he  had  regard 


BIOGRAPHY.  123 

more  to  the  freedom  than  to  the  restraint.  He  became 
thus  an  apostle  of  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, which  he  had  himself  enunciated  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  —  the  essential  equality  of  all  men  in  re- 
spect to  their  natural  rights.  Hence  he  must  be  classed  as 
a  radical,  though  he  cannot  be  called  extreme ;  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  government  he  was  not  altogether  true 
to  his  theory  of  the  limitation  of  its  powers.  In  a  word,  he 
represented  the  American  political  idea,  —  universal  liberty, 
and  the  right  of  all  to  a  just  and  equal  representation  in  the 
government. 

The  Writings  of,  ed.  by  H.  A.  Washington  (Wash.,  1853-55), 

9  vols. 
Memoir,  Corresp.,  and  Miscellanies,  ed.  by  Tho.  Jeff.  Randolph 

(Bost.  and  N.  Y.,  1830). 
H.  Adams's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  of  Am.  during  the  Administration 

of  Thomas  Jefferson,  4  vols. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  589. 
Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  415. 
Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  V.  3-6. 

See  Index. 
Chappel  and  Duyckinck's  Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  (N.  Y.,  1862), 

1.  117- 

Encyc.  Brit,  13.  613. 
Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  V.  4-6;  esp.  4.  291, 

340;  6.  138-142.     See  Index. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  i. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  638. 
McMastePs  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  I,  2. 
Morse's  Jefferson  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 
Parker's  Historic  Americans,  p.  235. 
Parton's  Life  of  (Bost.,  1874).     Same,  Atlan.,  V.  29-32. 
Randall's  Life  of  (N.  Y.,  1858),  3  vols. 
Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  i,  2,  esp.  2.  200-204. 
Tucker's  Life  of  (Philad.,  1837). 
Atlan.,  2.  706,  789. 
Ed.  R.,  51.496;  66.  156. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1890,  Feb.  20,  p.  20. 
Nation,  13.  309  (Unfavorable)  ;  18.  284  (Criticism  of  Parton's 

Life). 
Nat.  Q.,  30.  278. 


124      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

New  York  R.,  1.  5  (Character  of). 

No.  Am.,  30.  5 1 1  ;  39.  238  ;  101.  313  (Polit.  Opinions  of; ;  118. 

405. 
Westm.,  13.  312  (Eulogistic). 

WEBSTER   AND   CLAY. 

43.    Were  the  public  services  of  Webster  more  valuable  to 
the  country  than  the  public  services  of  Clay  ? 

As  the  "  Expounder  of  the  Constitution,"  Webster  con- 
firmed and  gave  larger  significance  to  the  important  con- 
servative element  of  nationality  in  the  government,  thus 
contributing  much  to  the  perpetuity  of  the  Union. 

Clay,  as  "the  Great  Pacificator,"  earnestly  sought,  by 
practical  compromises,  to  harmonize  conflicting  elements, 
and  thus  perpetuate  the  Union.  Both  were  patriotic, 
national,  American,  and  wrought,  each  in  his  own  way,  for 
the  same  great  end.  Which  contributed  more  to  the  ef- 
fecting of  that  end  must  be  ascertained  by  a  particular 
examination  and  comparison  of  their  services. 

WEBSTER. 

Himself  profoundly  impressed  with  the  supreme  impoi- 
tance  of  the  Union,  Webster,  by  his  masterly  speeches, 
produced  a  like  impression  upon  the  minds  of  his  coun- 
trymen, and  thus  confirmed  and  strengthened  the  senti- 
ment for  the  Union  which  should  insure  its  permanence. 
This  was  the  supreme  service,  which  during  his  life,  by  the 
power  of  his  great  intellect,  he  rendered  his  country ;  and 
this  he  did  by  clearly  showing  the  nature  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  pointing  out  the  end  it  subserves. 

His  mind  was  large,  and  took  large  views ;  yet  these  he 
made  plain  to  the  general  apprehension.  The  grandeur  of 
his  mind  and  of  his  thought  corresponded  to  the  greatness 
of  his  theme,  and  to  whatever  subject  he  treated  he  imparted 
his  own  dignity.  Thus  the  important  work  which  had  been 
so  well  begun  by  Hamilton  was,  in  a  like  spirit  and  with  a 
like  result,  carried  forward  by  Webster. 


BIOGRAPHY.  125 

Speeches  and  Forensic  Arguments,  8th  ed.  (Bost.,  1846). 

Works,  with  Life  by  Everett  (Bost,  1851),  6  vols. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  528  (Everett). 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  6.  406  (Fiske). 

Benton's  Thirty  Years'  View.     See  Contents. 

Bryant's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  4.     See  Index. 

Chappel  and  Duyckinck's  Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  (N.  Y.,  1862), 

2.   173. 

Choate's  Addresses  and  Orations,  pp.  222,  241,  517. 
Curtis's  Life  of,  2  vols. 
Dyer's  Great  Senators,  Chap.  6. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  24.  471  (Johnston). 
Everett's  Orations,  4.   186.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  63.  97.     Same, 

Eel.  M.,  48.  367. 
George  S.  Hillard,  A  Memorial  of  Daniel  Webster  from  the  City 

of  Boston  (Bost.,  1853). 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2-5. 
Lodge:   I.  Webster  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 

2.  Studies  in  Hist.,  p.  294.     Same,  Atlan.,  49.  228. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  4,  Lect.  48. 
Obituary  Addresses  delivered  in  the  U.  S.  Senate  and  House 

(Wash.,  1853). 

Parton's  Famous  Americans,  p.  53.     Same,  No.  Am.,  104.  65. 
Sargent's  Public  Men  and  Events  (Philad..  1875).     See  Index. 
Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2-4.     See  Index. 
Tefft's  Webster  and  his  Masterpieces  (Aub.  and  Buf.,  1854), 

2  vols.,  esp.  1.  466-498. 

Thomas's  Diet,  of  Biog.,  new  ed.  (Philad.,  1890),  p.  2440. 
Young,  The  Am.  Statesman  (N.  Y.,  1855). 
Chr.  R.,18.  95. 
Liv.  Age,  12.  44. 
Meth.  Q.,  38.  659. 
New  Eng.,  11.  606. 
No.  Am.,  68.  i  (As  a  Diplomatist) ;  75,  84. 

CLAY. 

Clay  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  class  of 
practical  statesmen.  Hence  his  work  was  rather  the  ap- 
plication than  the  exposition  of  general  principles.  He 
was  a  man  of  the  times,  a  great  political  leader;  yet  he 
was  more  than  a  mere  politician  or  partisan.  He  was  an 
earnest  patriot,  and  devoted  his  life  and  his  great  powers 


126      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

to  what  he  believed  to  be  the  true  interests  of  his  country. 
His  views  and  sympathies  were  national,  and  he  fully  ap- 
preciated the  supreme  importance  of  the  Union,  even  for 
the  security  of  liberty  itself.  Hence  his  great  service  to  the 
country  lay  in  his  effort  to  reconcile  antagonistic  elements, 
and  thus  to  promote  harmony  and  unity.  If  the  compro- 
mises effected  under  his  leadership  proved  but  temporary 
expedients,  they  at  least  served  a  good  purpose  in  post- 
poning the  evil  day.  His  championship  of  the  so  called 
"  American  System,"  as  well  as  of  internal  improvements, 
was  in  order  to  the  building  up  of  the  nation. 

Thus,  like  Webster,  he  may  be  said  to  have  had  a  na- 
tional mind,  which,  with  all  its  powers,  was  given  for  the 
promotion  of  the  good  of  his  country. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  652. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  640  (Schurz). 

Benton's  Thirty  Years'  View.     See  Contents. 

Bryant's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  4.     See  Index. 

Chappel  and  Duyckinck's  Nat.  Portrait  Gallery  (N.  Y.,  1862), 

2.  144. 

Colton's  Life,  Corresp.,  and  Speeches  of,  rev.  ed.  (1864),  6  vols. 
Dyer's  Great  Senators,  Chap.  5. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  5.  817. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  esp.  1.  412-415- 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  493. 
Mallory's  Life  and  Speeches  of  (N.  Y.,  1843),  2  vols. 
Moore's  Am.  Eloquence  (N.  Y.,  1872),  2.  259. 
Obituary  Addresses  delivered  in  the  Sen.  and  House,  June  30, 

1852  (Wash.,  1852). 
Parton's  Famous  Americans,  p.  3. 
Epes  Sargent's  Life  and  Public  Services  of,  completed  by  H. 

Greeley  (N.  Y.,  1853). 

Nathan  Sargent's  Public  Men  and  Events.     See  Index. 
Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2-4.     See  Index. 
Schurz's  Henry  Clay  (Am.  Statesmen  S.,  Bost.,  1887),  2  vols. 
Swaim's  Life  and  Speeches  of  (N.  Y.,  1843). 
Thomas's  Diet,  of  Bio^.,  new  ed.  (Philad.,  1890),  p.  661. 
Young,  The  Am.  Statesman  (N.  Y.,  1855).     See  Index. 
Nat.  Q.,  25.  52.         New  En£..  2.  105. 
No.  Am.,  25.  425:  33.  351 ;  102.   147. 
Putnam,  3.  493. 


BIOGRAPHY.  12  J 


WILLIAM    LLOYD   GARRISON. 

44.  Has  Garrison's  part  in  the  Antislavery  movement  been 
overrated? 

To  many  Garrison  seems  almost  as  much  identified  with 
the  Antislavery  movement  in  America  as  Luther  with  the 
Reformation.  He  was  not,  indeed,  the  originator  of  the 
movement ;  but  his  bold,  startling  voice  was  the  trumpet 
which  summoned  the  hosts  to  the  encounter.  The  time 
had  come  for  a  general  movement,  and  it  soon  became  so 
wide  and  strong  as  to  be  no  longer  dependent  on  any 
single  individual.  Yet  Garrison  was,  especially  in  its  be- 
ginning, as  much  as  any  man  its  soul.  He  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  its  moral  potency.  It  was  in  him  incarnate. 
It  possessed  and  inspired  him.  It  was  his  absorbing 
thought,  the  single  end,  the  chosen  mission  of  his  life. 
It  was  a  burning  inward  flame,  which  could  not  be 
quenched.  Such  is  the  high  ideal  entertained  by  many  of 
Garrison,  which  seems  likely  to  survive  hostile  criticism, 
and  make  him,  for  future  generations,  a  conspicuous  and 
admirable  figure  of  his  times. 

But  a  near  view  showed  him  to  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries as  extreme,  impracticable,  vituperative,  needlessly 
and  wantonly  provoking  violent  opposition,  and  opposing 
with  his  might  those  who,  in  a  different  way,  were  as  sin- 
cerely working  for  the  same  end,  and  whose  work,  because 
more  wisely  directed,  was  more  effective  than  his  own,  and 
contributed  more  to  the  final  result.  He  figured  as  the 
leader  of  a  forlorn  band,  Ishmaelitish  in  its  spirit,  the  in- 
fluence of  which,  as  the  conflict  became  more  general  and 
intense,  grew  less  and  less. 

He  was  manifestly  a  typical  reformer,  with  the  virtues 
and  faults  of  his  class,  and  was,  moreover,  especially  in  the 
earlier  part  of  his  career,  one  of  the  most  potent  among  the 
moral  forces  of  the  Antislavery  movement. 


128      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  628. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1879,  p  396. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  2.  610  (O.  Johnson). 

Wm.  Birney's  James  G.  Birney  and  his  Times. 

Brockett's  Men  of  our  Day,  p.  579. 

Encyc.  Brit,  10.  85. 

William  Lloyd  Garrison:   The  Story  of  his   Life  told  by  his 

Children  (N.  Y.,  1885-89),  4  vols. 
A  Memorial  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison  from  the  City  of  Boston 

(Bost.,  1886). 

Tributes  to,  at  the  Funeral  Services,  Feb.  28,  1879. 
Proceedings  at  the  Public  Breakfast  to  William  Lloyd  Garrison 

in  London,  June  29,  1867. 
Grimke's  William  Lloyd  Garrison  (N.  Y.). 

Johnson's  William  Lloyd  Garrison  and  his  Times  (Bost.,  1881). 
Goldwin  Smith's  The  Moral  Crusader,  William  Lloyd  Garrison 

(N.Y.,  1892). 
Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power  in  America.     See 

Index. 

And.  R.,  5.  476  (Criticises  adversely). 
Atlan.,  44.  334;  57.  120. 
Cent.,  8.  587. 
Dial  (Ch.),  6.  169. 
Fortn.,  37.  247. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1879,  May  29,  p.  14;  1882,  Jan.  12,  pp. 

2,  14;  1890,  July  10,  p.  20. 
Internat.  R.,  9.  143. 
Lit.  W.  (Bost),  16.  465. 
Meth.  Q.,  41.  270,  474. 
Nation,  28.  382 ;  41.  303. 
New  Eng.,  45.  i  (Adverse). 
No.  Am.,  129.  141. 
Westm.,  125.  366. 


BIOGRAPHY.  129 

JOHN    BROWN. 

45.  Was  John  Brown's  raid  into  Virginia  to  rescue  slaves 

unjustifiable  ? 

46.  Was  John  Brown's  execution  justifiable  ? 

47.  Should  John  Brown  be  regarded  as  a  hero  and  martyr, 

or  as  a  fanatic  ? 

The  life  and  character  of  John  Brown,  his  daring  but 
unsuccessful  raid,  his  heroic  death,  and  his  influence  on 
subsequent  events,  especially  in  hastening  the  overthrow  of 
slavery,  make  an  interesting  study. 

In  character  Brown  was  a  puritan.  He  was  a  man  of 
clear  and  strong  convictions,  of  an  heroic  and  undaunted 
spirit,  and  a  firm  believer  in  justice  and  true  righteousness. 
He  was  profoundly  religious,  and  all  his  religion  was  con- 
centrated in  a  burning  hatred  of  slavery.  His  self-consum- 
ing zeal  urged  him  to  instant  and  decisive  action.  While 
others  were  talking  and  agitating,  he  would  strike  a  telling 
blow.  He  would  carry  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country, 
and  strike  the  foe  with  terror.  For  to  him  slavery  was  not 
a  mere  abstract  wrong.  It  was  concrete  in  the  persons  of 
the  slaveholders,  who  together  formed  a  formidable  and 
defiant  satanic  power.  To  this  concrete  living  power  of 
slavery  in  the  persons  of  the  slaveholders  he  was  an  ir- 
reconcilable enemy,  and  he  would  overthrow  it.  Was  he  in 
this  a  precursor  of  that  dread  power  of  war  which  was  not 
long  after  evoked,  and  which  fully  and  finally  accomplished 
the  end  which  he  had  sought  in  vain?  And  was  his  the 
heroic  spirit  of  opposition  to  slavery  to  the  death,  which  in- 
spired and  led  the  victorious  hosts  ? 

But  conceding  his  sincerity  and  the  good  which  may 
at  last  have  been  brought  out  of  his  attempt,  can  these 
considerations  be  regarded  as  justifying  such  an  act  of  un- 
lawful violence  ?  On  its  face  it  was  a  foolhardy,  mad  pro- 
ject, which  soon  ended  in  disastrous  failure.  Tried  by  all 
ordinary  human  standards  of  judgment,  it  must  undoubt- 
edly be  condemned.  Are  there  higher  spiritual  and  provi- 

9 


130    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

dential  considerations,  such  as  have  been  already  indicated, 
which  seem  to  lift  it  from  the  low  level  of  an  isolated  event 
to  the  grandeur,  dignity,  and  glory  of  the  events  of  which 
it  seems  to  have  been  the  precursor? 

As  to  his  execution,  could  he  by  law  have  been  ac- 
quitted, save  on  the  plea  and  proof  of  his  insanity?  Or, 
if  condemned,  should  his  sentence  have  been  commuted  for 
one  less  severe? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  338. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  404  (Higginson). 

Emerson's  Miscellanies,  pp.  249,  254.     Complete  Works,  Riv. 

ed.,  V.  ii. 

Greeley's  Am.  Conflict,  V.  I,  Chap.  20. 
Von  Hoist's  John  Brown. 
Redpath's  Life  of. 

Sanborn's  Life  and  Letters  of  (Bost,  1885  ;  Lond.,  1885). 
Thoreau's  Yankee  in   Canada,  with  Antislavery  and   Reform 

Papers  (Bost.,  1866),  pp.  152,  278. 
Webb's  Life  and  Letters  of  (Lond.,  1861). 
Williams's  Hist,  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America,  V.  2,  Chap.  13. 
Wilson's   Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power  in  America,  V.  2, 

Chap.  45. 
Allan.,  15.  711  ;  29.  420;  30.  50;   35.  16,  224,  323,  453,  591; 

86.704;  44.738. 
Cent.,  4.  399;  8.  265. 
Dial  (Chicago),  6.  139. 
Liv.  Age,  71.  161.         Nation,  41.  324. 
New  Eng.,  17.  1066 ;  45.  289. 
No.  Am.,  137.  435  ;  138.  138  ;  141.  564. 


EDISON. 

48.  Is  Edison  the  greatest  living  American  inventor  I 

The  inventor  is  a  creator  ;  in  finding  out,  he  makes.  He 
finds  out  a  principle  and  makes  it  into  a  thing,  a  new  thing, 
an  instrument  for  use.  It  is  his  thought  that  is  creative ; 
the  invention  is  but  the  incarnation  of  his  thought,  the  in- 
strument which  effects  the  end  at  which  his  thought  aims. 
Hence  the  inventor  is  at  once  theoretical  and  practical ;  his 


BIOGRAPHY.  131 

effort  is  to  make  the  theoretical  practical.  He  makes  the 
forces  of  nature  subject  to  the  human  will  and  subservient 
to  human  welfare. 

Of  the  great  number  of  modern  inventors  who  have  done 
their  full  share  for  the  advancement  of  civilization,  Edison, 
by  native  genius  and  its  incessant  and  fruitful  exercise  in 
work,  stands  at  the  head,  as  one  of  the  best  representatives 
of  his  class.  With  an  intense  and  steady  concentration  of 
mind  he  follows  his  thought,  and  what  to  others  may  seem 
fancy  he  makes  fact.  He  has  not  less  a  genius  for  work 
than  for  thought.  His  work  matches  his  thought,  executes 
it,  carries  it  out  into  all  the  details  of  endless  experiment 
to  an  ultimate  triumph.  There  are  few  better  examples 
of  a  self-made  man,  —  of  one  who,  steadily  following  his 
bent,  has  achieved  by  his  own  efforts  a  success  so  large 
and  substantial. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  2.  303. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1876,  p.  518.  1877,  p.  638  (The  Phonograph). 
1878,  p.  34;  pp.  261-262  (Sketch  ofhis  Life  and  Estimate 
of  his  Genius);  pp.  537,  563.  1879,  pp.  335-339  (Electric 
Light).  1881,  pp.  252,  256  (Exhibition  of  Electricity  at 
Paris).  1882,  pp.  270,  275,  and  1883,  p.  304  (Electric 
Lighting).  1883,  p.  677.  1884,  pp.  305,  308. 
Mrs.  Sarah  K.  Bolton's  How  Success  is  Won  (Bost.,  1885), 

p.  174. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1890),  4.  203  ;  8.  142. 
S.  A.  Drake's  Our  Great  Benefactors,  p.  466. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  129,  132. 

S.  Fiske's  Off-hand  Portraits  of  Prominent  New  Yorkers,  p.  108. 
E.  E.  Kale's  Lights  of  Two  Centuries,  p.  587. 
Half-Hour  Recreations  in  Pop.  Science  (Bost.,  1879),  v-  2>  Art- 

15,  pp.  201-203  5  Art.  16,  p.  217. 
J.  B.  McClure's  Edison  and  his  Inventions. 
G.  B.  Prescott:  i.  The  Speaking  Telephone,  Talking  Phono- 
graph, and  other  Novelties  (N.  Y.,  1878), 
Chap.  6,  10.     See  Index. 

2.  The  Speaking  Telephone,  Electric  Light, 
and  other  recent  Electrical  Inventions, 
new  ed.,  with  200  additional  pages,  in- 
cluding illustrated  description  of  all  of 
Edison's  inventions  (N.  Y.,  iSSi). 


132     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Rep.  on  the  Internal.  Exhibition  of  Electricity  held  at  Paris, 

Aug.  to  Nov.,  1 88 1,  by  David  Porter  Heap  (Wash.,  1884). 

See  Index. 

Am.  J.  Sci.,  119.  337,  475- 
Dub.  Univ.,  94.  585. 

Harper,  80.  425  (Talks  with  Edison,  by  G.  P.  Lathrop). 
Kansas  R.,  2.  120. 

Nature,  18.  674;  21.  261,  341 ;  25.  446. 
No.  Am.,  149.  625  (Art.  by  Edison  oil  the  Dangers  of  Electric 

Lighting).     Ans.,  p.  653. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  13.  487;  14.  129  (G.  B.  Prescott). 
Science,  6.  145. 
Scrib.  M.,  6.  189-192. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  15.  854-^58.    17.  88  (A  Night  with).     18.  297,446, 

840  (His  Inventions).    19.  531  (His  Electric  Light). 


POLITICS. 


133 


III.     POLITICS. 


POLITICS  relates  to  the  present,  history  to  the 
past.  When  politics  falls  back  into  the  past, 
it  becomes  history.  Political  questions  are,  there- 
fore, such  as  are  called  "  living  issues,"  -  —  questions 
which  concern  the  present  welfare  of  man,  and  ex- 
cite a  general  and  practical  interest.  In  politics, 
as  in  all  things,  there  is  a  union  of  principle  and 
fact  Principle  is  the  soul,  fact  the  body.  Principle 
is  the  idea,  which  makes  politics  ideal;  fact,  the 
actual  striving  after  the  ideal.  The  importance  of 
the  actual  is  represented  by  the  degree  in  which  it 
represents  principle.  In  discussion  it  is  principle, 
or  ideal  politics,  which  is  chiefly  considered ;  while 
the  actual  is  considered  in  its  relation  to  principle. 
The  question  to  be  determined  is,  What  is  the  prin- 
ciple or  idea  which  should  be  made  actual  ?  Or, 
What  is  the  working,  influence,  and  effect  of  such  a 
principle,  as  embodied  in  some  actual  ?  Or,  What 
is  a  given  actual,  in  its  nature  and  value,  as  domi- 
nated by  a  certain  principle  ? 

Since  politics  relates  to  civil  government,  political 
questions  relate  to  the  nature  and  functions  of  gov- 
ernment, and  to  the  individual  as  a  citizen  or  subject 
of  government,  or  as  one  who  may  in  any  way  par- 
ticipate in  or  be  affected  by  it.  In  this  view,  the 
interest  and  importance  of  such  questions  become 
evident.  Such  is  especially  the  case  in  a  republic, 
in  which  not  only  are  the  people  dependent  on  the 
government,  but  the  government  is  dependent  on  the 
people. 


134    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

If  the  true  end  of  government  is  the  promotion  of 
the  general  welfare,  the  welfare  of  every  individual  is 
largely  dependent  on  the  character  of  the  government 
under  which  he  may  live.  While  civil  government, 
from  its  nature,  has  chief  respect  to  the  material  or 
external  interests  of  man,  it  also  affects,  in  many  ways, 
directly  and  indirectly,  his  higher  interests.  The 
state,  as  composed  of  moral  beings,  is  itself  moral ; 
and  questions  in  politics  have,  more  or  less,  an  ethi- 
cal element.  Such  questions,  therefore,  furnish  im- 
portant subjects  for  thought  and  inquiry. 

REPRESENTATIVE   DEMOCRACY. 

49.  Is  Representative  Democracy,  in  its  principles,  institu- 
tions, and  operation,  the  best  Jorm  oj  government  ? 

The  general  and  distinct  forms  of  civil  government  are 
commonly  considered  as  three,  —  monarchy,  aristocracy, 
and  democracy,  or  the  rule  of  one,  of  a  few,  and  of  the 
many.  These  may  also  be  considered  as  elements  which, 
in  varying  proportions,  constitute  many  actual  goverments. 

The  ideal  monarchy  gives  unity,  strength,  and  stability ; 
the  ideal  aristocracy,  wisdom ;  the  ideal  democracy,  gen- 
eral freedom  and  equality.  But  monarchy  may  degenerate 
into  tyranny,  aristocracy  into  oppression,  democracy  into 
anarchy.  Hence,  in  order  to  good  government  in  any 
form,  the  ruler  or  rulers  must  have  ability  and  good  char- 
acter, or  be  able  and  disposed  to  govern  for  the  good  of 
the  governed. 

Democracy  is  the  rule  of  the  people  or  citizens,  who,  in 
the  exercise  of  their  sovereignty,  choose  representatives 
that  shall,  in  their  behalf,  make  and  administer  the  laws. 
This,  therefore,  is  self-government,  or  the  government  by 
the  people  of  themselves  through  their  representatives, 
who  are  their  servants  and  amenable  to  them.  But  suc- 
cessful self-government  by  the  people  requires,  it  is  evident, 
general  intelligence  and  virtue. 


POLITICS.  135 

Civil  democracy  has  for  its  counterpart  social  democracy, 
in  which  social  distinctions  caused  by  birth,  wealth,  talent, 
and  position,  though  not  effaced,  are  less  marked  and  in- 
fluential. With  the  general  elevation  of  men  and  the 
bringing  of  them  together  characteristic  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, there  is  also  a  tendency  to  democracy  both  civil  and 
social.  This  tendency  seems  to  be  an  important  part  of 
the  general  progress,  and  on  the  whole  conducive  to  liberty 
and  equality  and  to  the  common  welfare. 

Amiel's  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.,  1889),  pp.  104,  102-14,  141-142, 

177,  185-186,  270. 

Arnold's  Politics,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.).     See  Index. 
M.  Arnold's  Mixed  Essays,  p.  I . 
Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  6,  Chap. 

22-23. 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  1-15. 
Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  2,  Chap.  94-97, 107. 
Carlyle's  Past  and  Present,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  13. 
Goodelf's  Democracy  of  Christianity  (N.  Y.,  1849),  2  vols. 
Grimke's  Nature  and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions  (Cin.t  1848). 

Same,  Works,  V.  i  (Columbus,  1871). 
Hildreth's  Theory  of  Politics,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  2,  sec.  8. 
Lalor's   Cyc.  of   Polit.   Sci.,  1.  756  (Democ.).     1.  764  (Rep. 

Democ. :    Bluntschli). 

Lotze:   i.  Microcosmus,  trans.,  3d  ed.,  2  vols.  in  i  ;  2.  557-560. 
2.  Outlines  of  Prac.  Philos.,  trans.  (Host.,  1885),  Chap. 

8,  sec.  64-67. 
Lowell's  Democracy,  and  Other  Addresses,  p.  i.    Same,  Critic., 

2.  211.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  103.  741. 
Maine's  Popular  Government  (N.  Y.,  1886).    Same  in  substance, 

Quar.,  155.  551  ;  157.  I  ;  158.  297  ;  159.  267. 
Mill :   i.   Representative  Government. 

2.  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.,  1874),    2.  79 

(Rev.  of  Tocqueville)      Same,  Ed.  R.,  72.  i. 
Mulford,  The  Nation,  Chap.  7-9,  12. 
Plato's  Republic,   lik.   8.      See  Jowett's   Dialogues  of  Plato, 

trans.  (N.  Y.),  2.  84-88,  382-394. 
Stickney's  True  Republic  (N.  Y.,  1879). 
Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America. 
Woolsey's  Polit.  Sci.,  V.  2,  Chap.  6. 
And.  R.,  9  37  (Rev.  of  Maine) ;  12.  385  (Aberrations  of  Democ.). 


136    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY    WORKERS. 

Allan.,  64.  577  (Democ.  in  Ihe  U.  S.). 

Bib.  Sac.,  25.  687. 

Conlemp.,  57.  525  ;  60.  788. 

Ed.  R.,  147.  301  (Am.  ed.,  p.  157). 

Forum,  1.  209 ;  7.  235. 

Nation,  48.  358. 

New  Eng.,  14.  52 ;  4O.  752. 

I9th  Cent,  19.  177  (Godkin,  Rev.  of  Maine);  19.  366  (Maine, 

Ans.  lo  Godkin). 
No.  Am.,  101.  103;  137.  28. 
Quar.,  85.  260  (Am.  ed.,  p.  149);  162.  518. 
Westm.,  88.  479  (Am.  ed.,  p.  222);  89.  i  (Dangers  of  Democ.). 


LAISSEZ  FAIRE   AND   STATE   INTERVENTION. 

50.  Is  the  Laissez  Faire,  or  let  alone  theory  of  government 

the  true  one? 

51.  /r  the  paternal  theory  of  government  the  true  one? 

52.  Should  State  intervention  be  extended? 

These  questions  relate  to  the  sphere,  function,  and  end 
of  government,  and  thus  involve  its  nature.  The  general 
question  has  respect  to  the  relation  of  the  State  to  the  in- 
dividual. If  the  individual  be  considered  the  end,  govern- 
ment will  be  the  means  for  the  protection  of  his  rights. 

The  principle  of  laissez  faire  reduces  the  part  of  gov- 
ernment to  a  minimum,  leaving  to  the  individual  a  large 
freedom  in  his  own  development.  In  its  application  to 
government,  it  is,  therefore,  chiefly  negative.  It  would  have 
men  let  alone,  that  they  might  not  be  hampered  in  the 
freedom  of  their  natural  development.  Government  would 
be  necessary  as  a  restraining  and  regulating  force,  chiefly 
for  protection ;  while  the  more  positive  promotion  of  the 
general  as  well  as  of  individual  good  would  be  left  to  pri- 
vate enterprise,  and  to  the  combined  and  organized  effort 
of  voluntary  associations.  Over  against  an  extreme  indi- 
vidualism lies  the  opposite  extreme  of  socialism,  which 
would  make  the  State  supreme  and  omnipotent.  With  the 
advance  of  civilization  social  relations  become  more  vari- 


POLITICS. 


137 


ous  and  complex ;  hence  arises  a  growing  dependence  on 
the  wisdom  and  power  resident  in  the  State  for  the  promo- 
tion of  unity,  order,  and  efficiency. 

The  problem  —  itself  of  the  highest  practical  importance 
—  which  awaits  solution  is,  the  union  of  the  general  good 
with  the  freedom  necessary  for  individual  developmennt. 

Eluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk-5,  Chap. 

3-4 ;  also  Bk.  I,  Chap.  7,  pp.  65-67. 
Bonham's  Industrial  Liberty  (N.  Y.  and  Lond.,  1888),  Chap. 

9-11  (Paternal  Gov.). 
Encyc.  Brit,  11.  15-20. 
Fawcett's  Essays  and  Lectures  on  Social  and  Polit.  Subjects, 

Ess.  2,  Gov.  Intervention.    Same,  Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci., 

2.  380. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works  (Lond.,  1886),  2.  335,  et  seq.      Lect.  on 

ihe  Principles  of  Polit.  Obligation. 
Helps's  Friends  in  Council,  ist  S.  (N.  Y.,  1861),  V.  2,  Chap.  5, 

sec.  2,  pp.  60-64. 

Wilh.  Humboldt's  Sphere  and  Duties  of  Gov.,  trans.  (1854). 
Huxley's  Critiques  and  Addresses,   Chap,    i    (Administrative 

Nihilism).      Same,  Fortn.,  16.   525.     Notice  of,  and  Ex- 
tracts from,  Nature,  4.  462,  495. 
Jevons's  State  in  Relation  to  Labor  (Lond.,  1882). 
Lieber's  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4,  5. 
A.  L.  Lowell's  Essays  on  Gov.     See  Index,  Paternal  Gov. 
Mill:  i.  On  Liberty,  Chap.  4,  5. 

2.  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  10,  n. 
Mulford,  The  Nation,  Chap.  14. 
Rae's  Contemporary  Socialism,  p.  368. 
Rogers's   Economical  Interpretation   of   Hist.   (N.  Y.,   1888), 

Lect.  16. 
Spencer:  i.  Social  Statics  (N.  Y.,  1873),  Pt.  3. 

2.  Study  of  Sociology  (N.  Y.,  1874),  Chap.  u. 

3.  Essays  Mor.,  Polit.,  and  Esthetic  (N.  Y.,  1865). 

Ess.  2,  Over  Legislation.     Ess.  9,  Tampering 
with  Money  and  Banks. 

4.  Recent  Discussions.      Ess.  8,  Specialized  Admin- 

istration.   Same,  Fortn.,  16.  627.    Ess.  12,  Polit. 
Fetichism. 

5.  The  Man  versus  the  State  (N.  Y.,  1884).     Same, 

Contemp.,  45.  153,  461,  613,  761  ;  46.  24.    Rev. 
in  Dial  (Chicago),  5.  127. 


138    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Stephen's  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity,  Chap.  4  (An  Ans.  to 

Mill  on  Liberty). 

Woolsey's  Polit.  Sci.,  V.  I,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  4,  5. 
Bib.  Sac.,  34.  88  (Gov.  Patronage  of  Knowledge). 
Chaut.,  8.  534. 
Contemp.,  47.  485  (Ans.  to  Spencer  by  Laveleye) ;  47.  509. 

(Reply  by  Speucer).     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  27.  165,  188. 
Forum,  3.  364. 
Fraser,  81.  72. 
Nature,  4.  301. 
No.  Am.,  145.  109. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  32.  289. 
Q.  J.  Econ.,  2.  353. 
Science,  10.  2,  13,  28. 
Westm.,  62.  473  (Am.  ed.,  p.  251)  ;  91.  484  (Am.  ed.,  p.  224) ; 

107.  305  (Am.  ed.,  p.  149). 


THE  ENGLISH  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  GOV- 
ERNMENT OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

53.  Is  the  English  government  superior,  in  form  and  oper- 
ation, to  the  government  of  the  United  States  ? 

The  distinctive  mark  of  the  English  government  is  its 
concentration  of  power ;  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  its  distribution  of  power.  The  power  of  the  former 
centres  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the  popular  branch  of 
Parliament.  This  gives  to  the  administration  of  affairs 
simplicity,  unity,  promptness,  and  efficiency,  and  is  suited 
to  the  needs  of  the  government  of  a  great  empire.  The 
English  government  is,  therefore,  at  once  popular  and 
efficient. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  is  fitted  by  its 
nature  for  a  great  and  free  nation.  Many  States,  with 
independent  governments,  are  united  in  a  national  gov- 
ernment ;  while  this,  supreme  in  its  sphere,  is  kept  from 
transcending  it  by  a  wise  division  of  power,  so  that  it  is 
made  the  instrument  of  conserving  the  liberties  of  the 
people. 


POLITICS,  139 

ENGLISH  GOVERNMENT. 

The  English  Constitution  is  a  striking  monument  of 
English  history  and  of  the  English  mind.  It  has  itself  a 
growth  or  development,  and  a  history,  and  shows  the  pro- 
gress of  liberty.  As  unwritten,  it  is  flexible,  or  capable  of 
change ;  but,  from  the  conservatism  of  the  English  mind, 
its  changes  have  constituted  a  steady  development  or 
progress.  Hence  the  English  government,  while  its  de- 
velopment has  kept  pace  with  the  advance  of  civilization, 
has  been  in  its  fundamental  principles  the  most  stable  of 
all  governments. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  the  English  Constitution 
is  human  liberty,  and  the  gradual  and  sure  development 
of  this  is  the  chief  mark  of  its  history.  In  form,  the  gov- 
ernment is  a  constitutional  or  limited  monarchy,  with  an 
aristocratic  and  a  popular  element;  while  in  fact  the  su- 
premacy of  the  last  makes  it  a  government  by  the  people,  or 
a  republic.  Indeed,  such  are  its  constitution  and  working 
that  its  changes  are  a  reflection  of  the  changes  of  public 
sentiment.  It  is  the  creature  of  the  popular  will,  made  and 
unmade  by  it.  This  facility  of  change  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government  might  seem  to  endanger  its 
stability ;  and  this  would  doubtless  be  the  case  but  for  the 
conservatism  of  the  English  mind,  which  makes  progress 
safe,  so  that  even  great  changes  are  rendered  beneficent 
instead  of  destructive.  In  this  conservative  influence  is 
found  the  chief  service  rendered  by  the  royal  and  aristo- 
cratic elements. 

The  simplicity  and  efficiency  of  the  government  are  seen 
in  its  working.  The  Commons,  created  by  the  popular  will, 
is  the  ruling  power.  The  Cabinet,  though  composed  of 
members  of  both  Houses,  is  the  instrument  of  the  Com- 
mons. Hence  the  governing  power  is  under  the  control  of 
the  people,  and  the  ease  with  which  change  is  effected 
precludes  any  serious  disturbance. 


140     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Anson's  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Const. 

Bagehot's  Eng.  Const.     Same,  Fortn.,  1.  i,  313  ;  2.  103,  595  ; 

3.  657;  4.  257;  6.  513,  807;  7.708. 
Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  6,  Chap. 

14,  pp.  371-374- 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  29. 
Carmichael's  Eng.  Const.   Hist.,  3d  ed.  (Lond.,   1886),  Chap. 

16-17. 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  3,  Chap.  8. 
Encyc.   Brit.,  art.  England,  sec.  Gov.  and  Laws,  8.  259  ;  art. 

Cabinet,  4.  618;  art.  Government,  Eng.  System,  11.   12- 

15;  art.  Parliament,  13.  302. 
Escott's  England,  Chap.  20-23. 

Gladstone's  Gleanings  of  Past  Years  (N.  Y.),  1.  203  (Kin  be- 
yond Sea).     Same,  No.  Am.,  127.  179  (Compares  the  Eng. 

Gov.  with  the  Gov.  of  the  U.  S.). 
Gneist's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1886),  V.  2, 

Chap.  44-58. 
Grimke's  Nature  and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions,  Bk.  2, 

Chap.  6.     Works  (Columbus,  1871). 
Hearn's    Gov.    of  Eng.,    its    Structure    and   its    Development 

(Lond.). 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  art.  Great  Britain,  sec.   Const.,  2. 

388-394;  also,  House  of  Commons  and  House  of  Lords, 

2.  470-474 

LaugePs  Eng.,  Polit.  and  Social,  Chap.  4. 
McCulloch's  Men  and  Measures  of   Half  a  Century  (N.  Y., 

1889),  Chap.  30  (Compares  with  Gov.  of  the  U.  S.). 
Macy's  Our  Gov.,  Chap.  27. 
May's  G»n>t.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  I. 
Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  7. 
Stephen's  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity  (N.  Y.,  1873),  Chap.  5, 

pp.  246-253. 

Stickney's  True  Republic,  Chap.  3. 
Woodrow  Wilson,  The  State,  Chap    10. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1877,  Feb.  22,  p.  i  (Eng.  and  Am.  Politics). 

Mar.  i,  p.  2  (Which  is  the  better  System?)     Mar.  8,  p.  3 

(The  better  System). 
Nation,  12.  101  (Objections  to  Parliamentary  Gov.)  ;  34.  318, 

334- 

Nat.  Q.,  18.  321. 
No.  Am.,  97,  216  (Rev.  of  May);  118.  i  (Rev.  of  Bagehot). 


POLITICS.  141 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  UNTIED  STATES. 

The  United  States  began  its  career  as  a  nation  under 
new  and  favorable  conditions,  which  made  possible  a  gov- 
ernment with  original  elements. 

The  independence  of  the  Colonies,  gained  by  the  war  of 
the  Revolution,  made  it  necessary  that  a  general  or  national 
government  should  be  formed  which,  while  for  its  purpose 
or  end  it  should  be  supreme,  should  not  only  not  supersede, 
but  should  conserve  the  State  or  local  governments.  Hence 
was  framed  and  adopted  by  common  consent,  with  certain 
conceded  powers  defined  in  the  Constitution,  the  Federal 
or  national  government.  This  is  a  popular  or  democratic 
government,  recognizing  human  equality  as  coincident  with 
liberty,  while  at  the  same  time  it  comprises  certain  con- 
servative elements  which  insure  its  stability.  In  some  of 
its  main  features  the  Constitution  is  a  reproduction  of  the 
English  form  of  government,  but  with  many  important 
modifications  suited  to  the  differences  in  the  structure  of 
society,  as  well  as  to  the  difference  in  the  end  which  the 
government  must  subserve.  The  government  is  divided 
into  three  distinct  departments,  which,  in  their  mutual  re- 
lations, serve  as  checks  and  balances  to  one  another.  The 
independence  of  these  departments,  while  preventing  the 
abuse  of  power,  may,  for  want  of  harmony,  produce  delay 
and  tend  to  inefficiency.  On  the  other  hand,  delay  may 
sometimes  prevent  unwise  action. 

The  officers  of  the  government,  though  responsible  to 
the  people  as  -their  real  sovereign,  are  chosen  for  a  definite 
period ;  hence  a  change  of  administration  is  neither  so 
quickly  nor  so  easily  effected,  as  following  a  change  of 
public  opinion,  as  in  England. 

In  short,  the  conservative  element  has  its  due  proportion 
and  weight,  insuring  the  stability  and  perpetuity  of  the 
government. 

Aridrews's  Manual  of  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S. 
Baker's  Federal  Const. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  Formation  of  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  V. 
2,  Bk.  5.     Same,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.,  V.  6,  Bk.  5. 


142     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  6,  Chap.  22. 
Bowen's  Documents  of  the  Const,  of  Eng.  and  Am.  (Camb., 

Mass.,  1854). 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  30. 
Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  I,  Pt.  i.     Rev.  in  And.  R.,  11. 

481  ;  Ed.  R.,  169.  481. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Republic,  Chap.  16-20. 
Const,  of  the  U.  S. 

Cooley's  Const.  Limitations,  5th  ed.  (Bost.,  1883),  Chap.  2. 
Curtis:  I.  Hist,  of  the  Origin,  Formation,  and  Adoption  of  the 

Const,  of  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.),  1855-58. 
2.  Const.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  from  the  Dec.  of  Ind.  to 

the  Close  of  the  Civil  War. 
Anna  L.  Dawes's  How  we  are  Governed. 
Elliot's  Debates  on  the  Fed.  Const. 
The  Federalist. 
Fiske:  I.  Crit  Period  of  Am.  Hist.,  1783-89. 

2.  Civil  Government  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  8. 
Ford's  Am.  Citizen's  Manual  (N.  Y.  and  Lond.,  1887),  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  2. 
Freeman's  Historical  Essays,  ist  S.,  p.  373  (Presidential  Gov.). 

Same,  Nat.  R.,  19.  i. 

Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic  of  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  12. 
Goodrich's  Sci.  of  Gov.  (Lowell  Lects.). 
Grimke's   Nature   and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions,  3d  ed. 

Works  (Columbus,  1871). 
Hosmer's  Short  Hist,  of  Anglo-Saxon  Freedom  (N.  Y.,  1890), 

Chap.  15. 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  1-6. 
Johnston's  United  States:  Hist,  and  Const.  (N.  Y.,  1889),  sec- 

106-156,  pp.  93-132.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  749-756. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  art.  U.  S.,  sec.  3,  Const.,  3.  1003. 
Lieber's  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Gov.,  Chap.  22. 
A.  L.  Lowell's  Essays  on  Gov.,  Chap,  i,  2. 
Macy's  Our  Gov.,  Chap.  30-33. 
The  Madison  Papers. 

Maine's  Pop.  Gov.,  Ess.  4.     Same,  Quar.,  157.  i. 
Sterne's  Constitutional  Hist,   and  Polit.   Development  of  the 

U.  S.,  4th  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1888). 
Stickney's  True  Republic. 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S. 
Thompson's  United  States  as  a  Nation  (Bost.,  1877),  Lect.  3,  4. 
Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  Am.,  V.  I.  Chap.  8. 
\VoodrowWilson-.  i.  Congressional  Gov. 
2.  The  State,  Chap.  n. 


POLITICS  143 

Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist,  of  Am.,  V.  7,  Chap.  4. 
Atlan.,  50.  95. 

Blackw.,  146.  276-286  (Brit,  and  Am.  Democ.). 
Forum,  5.  591. 
Internat.  R.,  7.  146. 
Nation,  6.  66. 
New  Eng.,  25.  no. 
I9th  Cent,  23.  297,  441. 
No.  Am.,  128.  113;  131.  385. 

Westm.,  63.  492  (Am.  ed.,  p.  257).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  35.  229. 
Same,  Liv.  Age,  45.  806. 


PARTY   GOVERNMENT. 

54.  Are  the  benefits  of  party  government  greater  than  its 

evils  ? 

55.  Is  the  existence  of  parties  necessary  in  a  free  govern- 

ment ? 

56.  Is  party  spirit  productive  of  more  evil  than  good? 

Parties  are  parts  of  the  whole  arrayed  against  each 
other.  The  highest  and  the  legitimate  cause  of  the  division 
which  produces  political  parties  is  a  difference  of  view  with 
respect  to  fundamental  or  subordinate  principles  of  gov- 
ernment, either  as  to  its  nature  or  its  administration,  as 
these  principles  are  embodied  in  a  certain  policy  or  meas- 
ures. The  opposition  of  parties  is  on  questions  with  two 
sides,  and  to  make  the  whole  both  sides  are  necessary. 

In  a  government  by  parties  the  opposition  has  its  neces- 
sary place  and  use,  and  exerts  an  influence  on  affairs  only 
second  to  that  of  the  dominant  party.  It  not  only  serves 
as  a  balance  and  a  check  to  the  ruling  party,  but  often  leads 
it  to  modify,  and  even  at  times  materially  to  change  its 
course.  The  result  is,  therefore,  the  effect  of  two  opposing 
forces,  each  contributing  some  share  to  its  production. 

This  is  a  philosophy  of  things  as  they  are,  an  ideal  of  the 
actual.  The  reality  of  the  actual  discloses  also  the  process 
which  leads  to  the  result,  and  that  on  its  dark  as  well  as  on 
its  bright  side,  —  the  bitter  strife,  the  low  aims,  the  false- 


144     DEFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

hood  and  slander,  the  prostitution  of  principle,  and  the 
making  of  the  end,  success,  t6  justify  any  means  by  which 
it  may  be  attained.  Is  all  that  is  dishonorable  in  parties 
necessarily  implied  in  their  very  existence?  Or  is  there  an 
ideal,  in  the  realization  of  which  there  shall  be  unity  in  the 
process  as  well  as  in  the  result,  and  by  which  parties  shall 
be  superseded  ?  Is  the  greater  toleration  any  sign  of  ulti- 
mate union  ?  May  men  differ,  discuss,  and  divide  on  various 
questions,  without  the  formation  and  existence  of  organized 
parties  ? 

Allen's  Old  and  New  Republican  Parties,  3d  ed. 

Amos's  Science  of  Politics,  pp.  188-198. 

Bolingbroke's  Dissertation  on  Parties,  Works  (Lond.,  1777), 

2.  i. 
Brougham     i.  Polit.  Philos  ,  Pt.  2.    Aristocratic  Governments, 

Chap.  5. 
2.  Statesmen  of  the  Time  of  George  III.,  1.  298 

(Effect  of  Party). 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  1,2,  Pt  3. 
Cooper's  Am.  Politics,  Bk.  i  (Hist,  of  the  Polit.  Parties  of  the 

U.  S.). 

Crane  and  Moses :  Politics,  Chap.  20. 

Froude's  Short  Studies,  1st  S.,  p.  309.     Same,  Fraser,  90.  I. 
Gneist's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const.,  V.  2,  Chap.  55-56. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  V.  3,  Ess.  8,  9,  14,  pp.   54,  64, 

523- 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  8. 
Johnston's  Hist,  of  Am.  Politics. 

Lotze's  Prac.  Philos.,  trans.  (Bost,  1885),  Chap.  8,  sec.  72. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  art.  Parties,  3.  95.    Also,  Party  Gov. 

in  the  U.  S.,  3.  112.     See  also  articles  indicated  in  "Party 

Names  in  U.  S.  Hist,"  3.  122. 
Lieber  :   i.  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  2. 

2.  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Gov.,  pp.  153-154- 
Macy's  Our  Gov.,  Chap.  34. 
May's  Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  2,  Chap.  8. 
Morris's  Prejudiced  Inquiries,  p.  48. 
NordhofFs  Politics  for  Young  Americans,  Chap.  10. 
Ormsby's  Hist,  of  the  Whig  Party. 
Patton's  Hist,  of  the  Democratic  Party. 
Riddle's  Law  Students  and  Lawyers,  Lect  8. 
Stickney's  True  Republic,  Chap.  5. 


POLITICS  145 

Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America,  V.  I,  Chap.  10. 
Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist,  of  Am.,  V.  7,  Chap.  5. 
Woolsey's  Polit.  Sci.,  V.  2,  Chap.  14. 
Annals  of  the  Am.  Academy  of  Polit.  and  Social  Sci.  (Philad., 

Nov.,  1891),  2.  300  (The  Place  of  Party  in  the  Political 

System). 

Chr.  R.,  20.  96  (Benefits  of  Party  Spirit  in  Am.). 
Fraser,  5.  448,  603 ;  6.  205  ;  16.  122. 
Liv.  Age,  21.  477  5  167.  505. 
Macmil.,  36.  298.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  11.  734  (Decline  of 

Party  Gov.,  by  Goldwin  Smith). 
Meth.  Q.,  20.  572  (Party  Politics,  Evils  of). 
Nation,  2.  680;  27.  67  (Party  Machinery  in  Eng.). 
Nat.  Q.,  22.  162  (Party  Strife). 
New  Eng.,  1.  517  (Party  Spirit,  Evils  of). 
'  N.  Princ.,  3.  343. 
1 9th  Cent.,  11.  378  ;  13.  424. 
No.  Am.,  39.  208  (Origin  and  Character  of  the  Old  Parties) ; 

132.  52  (Partisan  Gov.) ;  154.  583. 
O.  and  N.,  9.  708  (Gov.  by  Parties  not  by  and  for  the  People, 

by  Leonard  Bacon) ;  10.  353. 
Quar.,  147.  264  (Am.  ed.,  p.  140). 
Westm.,  64.  125  (Am.  ed.,  p.  65),  (Decline  of  Party  Gov.);  69. 

402  (Am.  ed.,  p.  221),  (Party  Gov. :   Against). 


UNIVERSAL   SUFFRAGE. 

57.  Is  universal  manhood  suffrage  true  in  theory  and  best 

in  practice  for  a  representative  government? 

58.  Should  an  educational  qualification  be  made  a  condition 

of  enjoying  the  right  of  suffrage  ? 

59.  Should  a  property  qualification  be  made  a  condition  of 

enjoying  the  right  of  suffrage  ? 

60.  Is  suffrage  a  natural  right  or  a  political  privilege  ? 

The  exercise  of  suffrage  gives  participation  in  govern- 
ment ;  hence  universal  suffrage  is  properly  the  practice  of 
the  principle  of  democracy,  so  that  the  same  arguments 
and  objections  are  applicable  alike  to  both.  It  is  based 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  who  are 

10 


146      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

assumed  to  be  originally  vested  with  governing  power,  which 
they  delegate  to  certain  chosen  representatives  to  exercise 
in  their  behalf.  This  is  self-government  by  proxy,  the 
original  power  residing  in  the  governed. 

The  right  of  suffrage  has  its  limitations.  It  is,  therefore, 
the  degree  and  kind,  rather  than  the  fact,  of  its  restriction 
that  is  in  question.  Manhood  suffrage  is  a  restricted,  and 
not  properly  a  universal  suffrage.  Even  with  this,  the  vot- 
ers constitute  but  a  minority  of  the  whole  population. 

The  chief  objection  to  it  is  the  unfitness  of  many  to 
exercise  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  gives  to  the  many  an 
interest  in  the  government,  and  is  itself  an  educating  force. 
While  attended  with  evils  many  and  great,  it  is  a  question 
how  much,  on  the  whole,  these  would  be  diminished  by  its 
restriction.  Yet  they  may  be  slowly  and  surely  lessened  by 
the  elevation  of  the  people  in  intelligence  and  virtue,  giving 
them  a  manly  independence.  This  seems  consonant  with 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  the  tendency  of  which  is  rather  to 
enlargement  thap  to  restriction. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1884),  5.  1 14-1 15  ; 
6.  297-299. 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  10. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  67,  475. 

Cooley's  Constitutional  Limitations,  5th  ed.,  p.  752. 

Ford's  Am.  Citizen's  Manual,  Pt  I,  pp.  85-90. 

Garfield's  Works,  2.  50-55.  Same,  Hinsdale's  Garfield  and 
Education,  pp.  233-243. 

Grimke's  Nature  and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions,  ist  ed., 
Bk.  i,  Chap.  5  ;  3d  ed.  in  Works,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  6. 

Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  3.  381,  506. 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  7. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  822. 

Lieber's  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Gov.,  pp.  175-177.  See  also 
Index,  Univ.  Suff. 

Mill's  Representative  Gov.,  Chap.  8. 

Mulford,  The  Nation,  Chap.  12. 

Sismondi's  Polit.  Econ.  and  the  Philos.  of  Gov.,  Selected  Es- 
says, trans.  (Lond.,  1847),  p.  286. 

Stephen's  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity,  Chap.  5,  pp.  238-255. 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const.,  V.  i,  Bk.  3,  sec.  574-586. 


POLITICS.  147 

Thompson's  United  States  as  a  Nation,  pp.  74-75,  268-274. 

Tocqueville's  Democ.  in  Am.,  V.  i,  Chap.  13. 

Ed.  R.,  28.  144;  31.  165. 

Internal.  R.,  8.  199. 

Nation,  3.  371. 

New  Eng.,  24.  151. 

Niles's  Reg.,  19.  115. 

1 9th  Cent.,  14.  1075. 

No.  Am.,  127.  i;  136.  119;  139.  492. 

Overland,  N.  s.,  4.  632-634. 

Princ.,  N.  S.,  5.  262  ;  6.  186. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  26.  194. 


NEGRO   SUFFRAGE. 
6 1.    Ought  the  negro  to  have  been  enfranchised  1 

Let  the  situation  at  the  time  the  negro  was  enfran- 
chised be  well  considered  and  understood.  Does  not  his 
enfranchisement  seem  to  follow,  in  a  natural  and  neces- 
sary order,  his  emancipation?  Since  he  came  at  last  to  be 
considered  in  law  as  a  man,  and  had  been  made  a  free 
citizen,  why  should  his  color  hinder  his  being  treated  in 
all  respects  as  a  man  and  a  citizen  ?  Why  should  not  his 
political  privileges  be  made  equal  to  those  of  the  whites  ? 

But  the  actual  has  fallen  far  short  of  the  ideal.  Neither 
emancipation  nor  enfranchisement  has  obliterated  the  color 
line.  The  whites  of  the  South  will  not,  in  general,  acknowl- 
edge that  the  blacks  are  in  any  respect  their  equals,  or  so 
much  as  entertain  the  thought  that  they  shall  become  so. 
The  enfranchisement  of  the  negro  has  not  worked  well. 
Constitutionally  the  right  is  his ;  but  he  is  largely  denied 
its  exercise.  Could  this  state  of  things  have  been  foreseen, 
and  had  this  conflict  of  the  races  been  taken  more  into 
the  account,  how  much  weight  should  or  might  it  have  had 
in  the  decision  of  a  matter  so  important?  Considering 
their  general  ignorance,  and  their  consequent  unfitness  for 
the  intelligent  exercise  of  the  right  of  franchise,  was  it  best, 
either  for  themselves  or  for  the  nation,  to  intrust  them  at 
once  with  such  a  responsibility? 


148      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1869,  art.  Congress,  p.  120. 

Blaine's  Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  V.  2,  Chap.  16.  pp.  412-421. 

Congressional  Globe,  4oth  Cong.  3d  Sess.,  1868-69,  Speeches 

on  1 5th  Amendment  to  Const.    See  Index,  Suffrage. 
Garfield's  Works,  1.  85. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  Art.  Suffrage,  3.  826. 
Sumner's  Works,  10.  55  ;  13.  303. 
Thompson's  United  States  as  a  Nation,  pp.  268-270. 
Williams's  Hist,  of  the  Negro  Race  in  Am.,  2.  420-424. 
Wilson's   Rise  and   Fall  of  the   Slave  Power  in  Am.,  V.  3, 

Chap.  47. 
Atlan.,  19.  112. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1877,  Aug.  2,  p.  i. 

No.  Am.,  123.  249  ;  128.  161,  337 ;  128. 225  etseq.  (Symposium). 
O.  and  N.,  6.  631. 
Putnam,  12.  616. 


WOMAN   SUFFRAGE. 
62.    Should  the  suffrage  be  extended  to  woman  ? 

The  woman  question  has  many  phases,  of  which  the 
question  of  suffrage  is  one  of  the  chief,  especially  of 
the  Woman's  Rights  movement.  The  general  elevation  of 
the  masses  of  the  people  characteristic  of  modern  times 
includes  the  gradual  and  sure  elevation  of  woman.  Her 
actual  sphere  is  widening,  and  she  is  entering  new  fields  of 
activity.  She  is  becoming  more  in  herself,  and  more  in  the 
world.  Shall  she  also  be  made  a  participant  in  the  govern- 
ment that  is  of,  by,  and  for  the  people  ?  Shall  she  have  a 
voice  in  the  making  of  the  laws  which  affect  her  welfare  ? 

The  question  relates  to  her  distinctive  nature  as  woman, 
and  her  relation  to  man.  None  deny  that  she  belongs  to 
the  human  race,  and  is  included  in  the  generic  name  of 
man  as  this  is  used  to  distinguish  the  human  race  from  the 
lower  animals.  What,  then,  are  her  capacities,  rights,  and 
claims,  as  she  is,  alike  with  man,  a  part  of  humanity? 

But  how  radical  is  the  distinction  of  sex  ?  What  is  the 
proper  and  peculiar  sphere  of  woman  as  woman,  as  distinct 
from  that  of  man?  Is  it  the  home,  in  such  a  sense  as 


POLITICS.  149 

necessarily  to  exclude  her  from  all  interest  and  participation 
in  public  affairs  ? 

The  nature  of  the  ideal  government  is  also  to  be  con- 
sidered. Is  an  exclusively  male  government  the  best  ?  Or 
would  it  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  the  feminine  ele- 
ment ?  Does  the  principle  of  democracy,  carried  to  its 
logical  conclusion,  require  that  political  privileges  should 
be  granted  to  women  ?  To  do  this  would  be  a  great  ex- 
tension of  this  principle  in  its  application  to  government. 
Would  it  be  wise  ?  How  much  better  would  it  be  likely  to 
make  the  government? 

What  effect  would  it  have  upon  woman  herself,  and 
through  her  upon  man  ?  Would  it  tend  to  unsex  her  ? 
WTould  she  lose,  in  any  degree,  her  refining  and  elevating 
influence  over  man?  What  has  been  the  practical  working 
of  woman  suffrage  where  it  has,  in  any  degree,  been  tried? 
What  is  the  position  of  women  in  general  toward  the  move- 
ment? Do  they  really  want  the  ballot?  How  much  do 
they  feel  it  a  wrong  to  be  deprived  of  it  ?  How  generally 
would  they  vote  if  they  could  ?  It  would  be  an  experiment 
in  some  such  sense  as  popular  government  is  an  experi- 
ment. It  maybe  supposed  that  the  further  development 
of  woman,  her  education,  her  general  elevation,  the  enlar- 
ging of  her  capabilities,  and  the  widening  of  her  sphere  in 
many  directions,  will  furnish  a  practical  solution  of  many  of 
the  difficulties  which  seem  now  to  beset  the  problem. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  2,  Chap. 

20,  pp.  190-192. 
Tennie  C.  Claflin's  Constitutional  Equality  a  Right  of  Woman 

(N.  Y,  1871). 

Frances  Power  Cobbe's  Duties  of  Women,  Lect  6. 
Emerson's  Miscellanies,  pp.  349-356.     Complete  Works,  Riv. 

ed.,  V.  ii. 

Fawcett's  Essays  and  Lectures,  pp.  230,  262. 
Higginson's  Common  Sense  about  Women,  Chap.  72-1  °5- 
Hist,  of  Woman  Suffrage,  ed.  by  Mrs.  Stanton,  Miss  Anthony, 

and  Mrs.  Gage,  3  vols. 


150      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Mill :  i.  Subjection  of  Woman. 

2.  Rep.  Gov.  (Harper's  ed.,  1862),  Chap.  8,  pp.  190-195. 

3.  Dissertations  and  Discussions,  3.  93.     Same,  Westm., 

55.  289  (Am.  ed.,  p.  149). 

Wendell  Phillips's  Speeches  (Bost.,  1864),  P-  ". 
Robinson's  Mass,  in  the  Woman's  Suffrage  Movement. 
Spencer's  Social  Statics,  Chap.  16,  sec.  9. 
Stanton's  Woman  Question  in  Europe,  Chap,  i,  sec.  i. 
Elizabeth  Wilson's  Woman's  Rights  and  Duties  (Philad.,  1849), 

Chap.  10. 
The  Woman's  Journal  (Bost.),  from  V.  i  (1870),  onward.    (For 

some  references  see  below.) 
Sen.  Rep.,  48th  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  No.  399. 
Contemp.,  4.  307.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  68.  706. 
Contemp.,  47.  418  (Ans.  to  Objections);  58.  830. 
Forum,  2.  351,  439;  3.  131. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1873,  Sept.  18,  p.  1155;  1874,  July  16, 

p.  16;  Sept  10,  p.  16;  1879,  Aug.  14,  p.  17. 
Macmil.,  30.  377.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  83.  553.     Same,  Pop.  Sci. 

Mo.,  6.  87  (Reply  to  Goldwin  Smith,  by  J.  E  Cairnes). 
Nation,  3.  498;  4.  136;  5.  35,416;  6.   116;  9.  386,  434;   20 

290;  29.  327-328;  37.  70;  44.  362. 

1 9th  Cent.,  19.  740  (Reply  to  Mrs.  Chapman  by  Mrs.  Fawcett). 
No.  Am.,  129.  413.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  10  350,  358,  366,  374. 
No.  Am.,  137.  495-519-    Same,  in  part,  Woman's  J.,14.  337-338. 
No.  Am.,  139.  405.     Same.  Woman's  J.,  15.  350. 
No.  Am.,  143.  37  (Mrs.  Livermore,  Ans.  to  Ouida). 
Putnam,  12.  603,  701. 

Westm.,  87.  63  (Am.  ed.,  p.  29)  ;  122.  185,  375. 
Woman's  J.      Ans.  to  Pres.  Fairchild,  1.   216,  224,  226,  234, 

242,  251.     Rev.  of  Objections,  2.  130,  138,  146,  154,  162  ; 

3.  90  (Judge  Talbot)  ;  4.  79,  80,  232,  257.  266  ;  5.  7,  1 8,  31, 

58,  164,  185,  272,  396,  402,  404,  406;  5.^264  (G.  W.  Curtis); 

6.  61;  7.  60;  9.  53,  56,  60,  273  ;  10.  337.    Woman  Suffrage 

in  Wyoming,  7.44;  8.  164;  9.  312,412;  10.  5. 

NEGATIVE. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  2, 
Chap.  20,  pp.  192-194. 

Miss  C.  E.  Beecher's  Woman's  Suffrage  and  Woman's  Pro- 
fession (Hartford,  1871). 

Bushnell's  Woman's  Suffrage  the  Reform  against  Nature. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  2,  Chap.  93. 


POLITICS.  151 

Fairchild's  Woman's  Right  to  the  Ballot. 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  1.  234. 

Lieber's  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap,  i,  sec.  8-14;  old  ed., 

p.  249;  2d  ed.,  p.  121. 
Phelps's  My  Portfolio,  Chap,  u,  12. 
Sen.  Rep.,  48th  Cong.,  ist  Sess.,  No.  399,  Pt.  2. 
Stephen's  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity  (N.  Y.,  1873),  Chap.  5, 

pp.  203-238  (Ans.  to  Mill's  Subjection  of  Women). 
Chr.  Exam.,  56.  i. 

Contemp.,  47.  327-328.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  104.  617. 
Forum,  4.  i  ;  8.  515. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1874,  Oct.  22,  p.  5.     Same,  Woman's  J., 

5.  249. 

Independent,  1874,  Nov.  19,  p.  4;  1875,  Oct.  14,  p.  14. 
Macmil.,  30.   i39(Goldwin  Smith).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  83.  171. 

Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  5.  427.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  5.  248, 

252. 
Nation,  8.  87,  496  ;  9.  72,  193  ;  10.  101,  189,  205,  237;  12.  270; 

13.285;  18.311;  22.205,317;  29.286,327,364;  36.204; 

39.  108;  44.  310. 
New  Eng.,  43.  193. 

I9th  Cent,  19.  561  (Mrs.  Chapman) ;  25.  781 ;  26.  347,  and  App. 
No.  Am.,  129.  303.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  10.  334,  338. 
No.  Am.,  130.  16.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  10.  414 ;  11.  6. 
No.  Am.,  137.  137.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  14.  238-239,  242. 
No.  Am.,  143.  290  (Ouida). 
O.  and  N.,  4.  76. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  82. 
Speech  of  Hon.  S.  Archer  in  Congress,  Woman  Suffrage  not  to 

be  tolerated,  Woman's  J.,  3.  279,  283,  295,  299. 
Woman's  J.,  4.  226  (Woman  Suffrage  refuted);   4.   228  (and 

Marriage);  9.  54,  102. 


CENTRALIZATION   AND   STATE   RIGHTS. 

63.  Does  the  successful  maintenance  of  the  United  States  as 
a  nation  require  that  the  national  government  grow 
in  strength  ? 

This  question  requires  a  consideration  of  the  nature  of 
the  complex  government  of  the  United  States,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  mutual  relation  of  the  Federal  government  and 


152      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

the  State  governments.  The  Federal  government  is  for 
unity ;  the  State  governments  for  liberty  and  democracy. 

The  unity  of  the  Federal  government  must,  indeed,  not 
only  not  be  inconsistent  with  liberty,  but  must  promote  it ; 
still,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  State  government  is 
closer  to  the  people,  is  more  immediately  of  and  for  them. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  States  were  at  first  jealous  of 
the  power  of  the  Federal  government ;  and  the  doctrine  of 
State  rights,  or  State  sovereignty,  was  by  some  maintained 
in  the  interest  of  democracy  and  of  the  people.  But  the 
national  government  is,  and  must  be,  supreme ;  and  the 
maintenance  of  its  supremacy  is  one  of  the  most  important 
results  of  the  Civil  War. 

"  In  union  is  strength  "  ;  and  in  order  to  union,  with  its 
indispensable  benefits,  there  must  be  strength.  The  unity 
of  the  nation  is  a  growth.  As  the  nation  grows,  many  in- 
fluences conspire  to  weld  its  parts  more  firmly  together. 
But  this  closer  and  stronger  union  finds  expression  in  the 
national  government,  the  centre  and  bond  of  unity.  As  the 
nation  becomes  more  united,  the  national  consciousness  is 
more  felt.  In  what  consists  this  growing  national  unity, 
and  what  is  its  influence  on  the  government?  What  must 
the  governrhent  be  to  correspond  to  it,  —  to  maintain  and 
increase  it? 

On  the  other  hand,  the  local  government,  as  represented 
by  the  States,  must  not  be  overshadowed,  or  its  powers 
usurped  and  minimized,  by  the  general  government.  There 
may  be  danger  of  too  great  centralization.  In  a  great  and 
free  nation  like  ours,  power  must  be  distributed  as  well  as 
concentrated.  The  question  must,  therefore,  be  understood 
as  meaning,  not  whether  the  national  government  shall  grow 
at  all  in  strength,  for  this  is  inevitable  as  the  nation  grows ; 
but  whether  it  shall  increase  relatively  in  strength,  that  is, 
shall  gain  upon  the  local  governments.  On  the  whole,  it 
must  be  owned  that  the  history  of  the  government  thus  far 
seems  to  favor  this  view ;  but  how  far  can  this  be  permitted 
to  go  without  endangering  our  form  of  government,  and 
with  it  our  liberties  ? 


POLITICS.  153 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  i,  Chap.  2-4,  26-35. 
Calhoun's  Const,  and  Gov.  of  the  U.  S.,  Works,  1.  109.     Also 

Speeches,  Works,  2.  262. 
Cooley's  Constitutional  Limitations. 
Draper's  Future  Civil  Policy  of  Am.,  Chap.  4. 
The  Federalist,  No.  2-28,  41-46. 

Fiske's  Am.  Polit.  Ideas,  Chap.  2.     Same,  Harper,  70.  407. 
Ford's  Am.  Citizen's  Manual,  Pt.  2. 
Garfield's  \Vorks,  2.  708. 
Goodrich's  Sci.  of  Gov. 
Hinsdale's  Schools  and  Studies,  p.  200. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  I,  Chap.  I,  2. 
Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  I,  2. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  368. 
A.  L.  Lowell's  Essays  in  Gov.,  pp.  48-52. 
Mulford,  The  Nation,  Chap.  17. 
Patton's  Democratic  Party,  Chap.  42. 
Stephens's  War  between  the  States,  V.  I. 
S'terne's  Constitutional  Hist,  and  Polit.  Development  of  the 

U.  S.,  Chap.  6. 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  3. 
Tocqueville's  Democ.  in  Am.,  Bowen's  ed.  (Bost.,  1876),  V.  I, 

Chap.  5,  p.  107;  V.  2,  Bk.  4. 
Webster's  Works,  3.  270  (Reply  to  Hayne). 
Atlan.,  43,  184;  53.  701  ;  57.  542,  578;  58.  648. 
Cent.,  6.  534. 

Contemp.,  48.  864.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  106.  346. 
Library  M.  (N.Y.,  1880),  6.  34. 
No.  Am.,  131.  385  ;  132.  407;  133.  338  ;  139.  155. 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  1.  9,  163  ;  5.  389. 
Princ.,  33.  611.     Princ.,  N.  s.,  9.  85. 


PERPETUITY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  A 
NATION. 

64.    Are  the  conservative  forces  in  our  nation  sufficient  to 
insure  its  perpetuity  ? 

The  career  of  the  United  States  as  a  nation  has  been 
attended  with  the  most  favorable  auspices,  and  she  seems 
likely  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  powerful 
nations  of  the  earth.  Her  growth  has  been  marvellous, 


154      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

and  seems  to  be  the  promise,  of  a  future  great  and  long. 
She  has  the  vigor,  the  pride,  the  hopefulness  of  youth. 
Her  beginning  was  in  a  favorable  time  and  under  favorable 
conditions.  Taking  possession  of  the  New  World,  with  its 
unoccupied  territory  of  vast  extent  and  far  removed  from 
the  Old  World,  she  embodied  in  her  Constitution  and  insti- 
tutions the  modern  political  ideas  of  universal  freedom  and 
equality.  She  has  thus  great  powers  of  attraction,  wide 
opportunities  for  extension,  and  a  large  capacity  for  assimi- 
lation. The  multitudes  of  other  lands  flock  to  share  her 
freedom,  her  opportunities,  and  her  greatness. 

But  on  this  new  theatre  of  its  development  human  nature 
remains  essentially  unchanged.  There  is,  as  everywhere  in 
the  world,  the  same  mixture  of  good  and  evil,  with  the  same 
inevitable  conflicts  between  them,  —  the  same  greed  and 
selfishness,  with  not  a  little  of  the  same  inequality.  The 
good  is  the  preservative  power  of  a  nation,  and  it  is  the 
endurance  and  victory  of  this  which  are  the  certain  pledge 
of  its  perpetuity.  Is  the  good  in  this  nation  holding  its 
own,  and  making  sure  gains  over  the  evil  ? 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  2,  Chap.  94-96,  115-116. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy. 

Draper's  Future  Civil  Policy  of  Am.,  Chap.  14. 

Emerson's  Fortune  of  the  Republic.    Same,  Miscellanies,  p.  393. 

Complete  Works,  Riv.  ed.,  V.  u. 
Fiske's  Am.  Polit.  Ideas,  Chap.  3.    Same,  in  substance,  Harper, 

70.  578. 

Garfield's  Works,  2.  46. 
Goodrich's  Sci.  of  Gov.,  Lect.  12. 
J.  B.  Harrison's  Certain  Dangerous  Tendencies  in  Am.  Life, 

and  Other  Papers  (Bost.,  1880),  Ess.  i.     Same,  Atlan.,  42. 

385.     Rev.  in  Nation.  31.  31. 
Hinsdale's  Garfield  and  Education,  p.  234  (Macaulay's  Letter 

to  Randall).     Same,  Garfield's  Works,  2.  51.     Same,  Liv. 

Age,  65.  430.     Same,  New  Eng.,  24.  152. 
Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Am.  ed. 

(N.Y.,  1868),  Chap.  12. 

Maine's  Pop.  Gov.,  Chap.  I.     Same,  Quar.,  155.  551. 
Strong's  Our  Country. 
Sumner's  Prophetic  Voices  concerning  America.    Same,  Works, 

12.   i. 


POLITICS, 


155 


Thompson's  U.  S.  as  a  Nation,  Lect.  4-6. 

Tocqueville's  Democ.  in  Am.,  V.  i,  Chap.  13-18,  esp.  Chap.  18. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  8.  505. 

Forum,  8.  40,  262. 

Internat.  R.,  3.  462. 

Meth.  R.,49.  685. 

Nation,  36.  290. 

New  Eng.,  1.  492. 

No.  Am.,  133.  315. 

Overland,  N.  S.,  4.  630. 

Putnam,  15.  596. 

Univ.  Q.,  46.  194. 

Westm.,  95.  322.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  109.  387. 

THE  ELECTION    OF   PRESIDENT. 

65.  Should  the  present  method  of  electing  the  President  be 

superseded  by  some  other  method  1 

66.  Should  Electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  be 

elected  by  the  vote  of  Congressional  districts,  with 
two  at  large  for  each  State ,  instead  of  upon  general 
ticket? 

67.  Should  the  President  be  elected  by  a  direct  popular  vote, 

counted  by  federal  numbers  ?  Or,  Should  the  Pres- 
ident be  elected  by  a  majority  of  the  nation's  Voters, 
voting  directly  ? 

The  framers  of  the  Constitution,  having  discussed  the 
various  methods  of  electing  the  President,  embodied  in  it 
the  one  that  to  them  seemed  best ;  which,  however,  time 
and  usage  have  infused  with  a  spirit  more  popular  than  they 
intended  to  give  it.  This  method,  in  its  use,  is  really  the 
electing  of  the  President  by  the  direct  popular  vote  of  the 
States,  since  the  subsequent  vote  of  the  chosen  Electors  is 
but  a  formal  ratification  of  the  State  vote.  Yet  it  is  a 
majority  of  the  electoral  vote  that  elects ;  and  this  may  be, 
and  often  has  been,  correspondent  to  a  minority  of  the 
aggregate  national  vote. 

This  method  is  a  practical  recognition  of  the  States  in 
their  federal  union,  giving  them  in  the  election  a  part  and 


156      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

power  as  States.  An  election,  by  districts  instead  of  by 
States  would  be  more  nearly  correspondent  to  popular  sen- 
timent ;  and  while  it  might  diminish  the  probability,  would 
not  preclude  the  possibility,  of  an  election  by  a  minority  of 
the  aggregate  vote.  The  increased  power  given  to  the 
States  in  the  determining  of  the  districts  would  also  be 
liable  to  a  dangerous  abuse. 

An  election  by  a  majority  of  the  aggregate  national  vote 
would  seem  more  democratic ;  while  it  would  at  the  same 
time  diminish  the  relative  power  of  the  States,  and  increase 
the  relative  power  of  the  national  government,  to  an  extent 
which  might  tend  to  disturb  the  necessary  balance  between 
them. 

Thus,  in  view  of  the  objections  to  alternative  methods, 
the  present  method,  though  also  open  to  objection,  is  likely 
to  remain  undisturbed. 

Andrews's  Manual  of  the  Const.,  pp.  164-171. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  Const.,  2.  169-185.  Same,  Hist,  of  the 
U.  S.,  rev.  ed.,  6.  328-340. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  1.  37-41. 

Elliot's  Debates,  1.  182,  208,  211,  222,  228,  283,  290-302. 

The  Federalist,  No.  68. 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y., 
1868),  pp.  113-117- 

Kent's  Commentaries  on  Am.  Law,  V.  I,  Pt.  2,  Lect.  13,  (3). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  60. 

Me  Knight's  Electoral  System. 

O' Neil's  Am.  Electoral  System  (N.  Y.  and  Lond.,  1889). 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const.,  V.  2,  sec.  1453-1476. 

Sen.  Rep.,  43d  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  1873-74,  No.  395  (Morton 
Amendment). 

Am.  Law  R.,  12.  I  (Senator  Edmunds  :  for  present  plan, 
against  voting  by  districts);  12.  413  (Nicholas  plan,  non- 
partisan). 

Atlan.,  42.  543  (For  present  plan). 

Cent.,  7.  124  (George  T.  Curtis  :   Election  by  Legislature). 

Forum,  12.  702. 

Internat.  R.,  5.  198  (Cooley,  who  reviews  the  various  plans; 
and  Hewitt,  who  prefers  the  district  system). 

M.  Am.  Hist,  14.  181  (Several  reasons  for  direct  vote). 


POLITICS.  157 

Nation,  16.  4  (For  direct  vote);  17.  124  (Against  the  present 
system);  23.  295,  351  ;  26.  382;  52.  421-422. 

Niles's  Reg.,  24.  372,  411  (Phocion's  Letters). 

No.  Am.,  117.  383  ;  124.  i,  161,  341  (O.  P.  Morton) ;  125.  68 
(Morton,  against  present  system),  140.  97  (Symposium). 

Penn.  Mo.,  8.  494. 


THE   CABINET   IN    CONGRESS. 

68.    Should  members  of  the  Cabinet  have  seats  on  the  floor 
of  Congress ,  and  a  voice  in  its  debates  ? 

The  proposed  connection  of  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
with  Congress  is  a  step  toward  the  closer  relation  of  the 
executive  and  legislative  departments,  and  involves  the  dis- 
cussion of  a  fundamental  principle  of  our  government,  the 
independence  of  the  three  general  departments.  This 
independence  of  the  departments  rests  on  the  theory  that, 
while  the  concentration  of  power  may  give  more  unity  and 
efficiency,  a  division  or  distribution  of  power,  with  checks 
and  balances,  is  less  likely  to  become  arbitrary  and  irre- 
sponsible. How  far  the  proposed  measure  would  tend  to 
produce  this  end  may  be  a  question.  The  aim  of  its 
advocates,  the  securing  of  better  legislation  and  adminis- 
tration by  a  more  harmonious  co-operation  of  the  two  de- 
partments, seems  desirable.  Co-operation,  in  some  sense 
and  degree,  there  must  be  ;  and  so  far  as  this  can  be 
attained  without  imperilling  the  due  balance  of  power,  it 
should  by  all  means  be  sought. 

The  decisive  point  of  the  question  seems  to  be,  how  far 
such  a  measure,  in  its  theory  and  practical  working,  is  suited 
to  our  form  of  government. 

Bagehot's  Eng.  Const.,  Chap.  2.     Same,  Fortn.,  1.  I. 
Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  i,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  9. 
Cong.  Globe,  38th  Cong.  2d  Sess.,  1864-65,  Pt.  i,  pp.  437-448. 
Cong.  Record,  46th  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  1878-79,  V.  9,  Pt.  i,  pp. 

966-974. 

House  Reports,  38th  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  1863-64,  V.  i,  No.  43. 
Senate  Reports,  46th  Cong.  3d  Sess  ,  1880-81,  V.  i,  No.  837. 


158      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Garfield's  Works,  1.  61.     Same,  Cong.  Globe,  1864-65,  Pt.  i, 

pp.  444-446. 
Gladstone's   Gleanings  of   Past   Years   (N.  Y.),   1.    223-226. 

Same,  No.  Am.,  127.  193-196. 
Story's  Com.  on  the  Const.,  V.  I,  sec.  869-872. 
Wilson's  Cong.  Gov.,  pp.  256-291. 
A.  L.  Lowell's  Essays  on  Gov.,  Chap,  i.,  Cabinet  Responsibility 

(Criticises  Wilson's  view). 
Annals  of  the  Am.  Academy  of  Polit.  and  Social  Sci.  (Philad., 

Nov.,  1891),  2.  289. 
Atlantic,  50.  95  ;  65.  771-772. 
Nation,  16.  233 ;  28.  243 ;  32.  107. 
No.  Am.,  111.  330;  124.  21. 


THE   JURY. 

69.  Do  the  advantages  of  the  Jury  system  outweigh  its 

evils  ? 

70.  Is  the  Jury  system  worthy  of  being   retained?     Or, 

'changing  sides,)  Ought  the  Jury  system  to  be 
abolished  ? 

71.  Should  a  three-fourths  majority  be  sufficient  for  a  de- 

cision by  the  Jury  ?  Or,  (changing  sides,)  Is  the 
entire  unanimity  of  the  Jury  in  their  verdict  a  fea- 
ture of  the  Jury  system  which  should  be  retained? 

The  Jury,  considered  in  its  nature,  history,  and  influence, 
is  of  the  first  importance.  It  is  a  popular  institution,  and 
has  had  a  political  as  well  as  a  judicial  significance.  The 
right  of  a  trial  by  a  jury  of  his  peers  has  been  regarded  as 
one  of  the  fundamental  civil  rights  of  a  freeman. 

In  its  popular  nature  are  found  at  once  its  advantages 
and  its  defects ;  hence  this  both  affords  the  solid  ground  for 
its  existence  and  exposes  it  to  attack.  For  in  the  popular, 
as  in  other  things,  the  actual  does  not  always  coincide  with 
the  ideal. 

The  ideal  of  the  Jury  is  liberty  and  justice  ;  its  actual  is. 
often  a  gross  miscarriage  of  justice.  In  short,  it  is  suscep- 
tible of  abuse.  The  true  use  of  the  Jury  is  found  in  the 


POLITICS.  159 

competence  and  good  character  of  the  jurors ;  hence  one 
remedy  of  abuse  is  careful  selection. 

The  requirement  in  all  cases  of  unanimity,  would  seem 
to  be  extreme,  and  is  liable  to  fall  short  of  its  high  aim.  If 
the  unanimity  be  free,  and  from  personal  and  intelligent 
conviction,  it  must  carry  much  weight ;  but  if  arrived  at  by 
compromise  or  stress  of  circumstances,  its  weight  will  be 
materially  lessened. 

The  Jury,  then  has  its  use  and  abuse ;  and  the  dimin- 
ution of  its  abuse  will  promote  its  use  and  add  to  its 
strength.^ 

Amos's  Sci.  of  Law  (Internal.  Scient.  S.),  pp.  266-270. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  721. 

Creasy's  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Eng.  Const.  (N.  Y.,  1865), 

Chap.  13,  pp.  186-208. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  13.  783. 
Forsyth's  Hist,  of  Trial  by  Jury. 
Freeman's  Norman  Conquest,  5.  302-304. 
Gneist's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const.     See  Index. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  660-662   (Gives  a  long  list  of 

authorities). 
Lieber's  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Gov.  (Enumerates  twenty-two 

advantages  of  the  Jury  System). 
P.  V.  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Institutions,  Chap.  8,  pp.   207- 

209,  212-214,  22  t-222. 

Spooner's  Trial  by  Jury. 

Stubbs's  Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  I,  sec.  164,  pp.  608-615. 

Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  Am.  (Bowen's  ed.,  Bost.,  1876),  V. 
i,  Chap.  16,  p.  358  (Gives  its  polit.  aspect). 

Am.  Law  R.,  11.  24  (Origin)  ;  17.  398 ;  20.  661  ;  21.  859. 

Atlan.,  48.  9. 

Brit.  Q,  52.  57. 

Cent.,  3.  124;  4.  289. 

Eel.  M.,  105.  11. 

Forum,  3.  102  ;  9.  309. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  Origin  of  the  Jury,  by  Chief  Justice  Neil- 
son  :  1875,  Nov.  4,  p.  I  ;  Nov.  11,  p.  I ;  Nov.  18,  p.  2; 
Dec.  2,  p.  4;  1876,  June  i,  p.  2;  June  8,  p.  2;  June  15, 
p.  5  ;  Aug.  3,  p.  5. 

Internat.  R.,  14.  158. 

Nation,  10.  314;  16.  428 ;  17.  351 ;  32.  45  ;  37.  90  ;  44.  546. 


160      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

No.  Am.,  92.  297;  119.  219  (Historical)  ;  134.  244  ;  135.  447; 

139.  i,  348. 

No.  Brit.,  8.  82  (Am.  ed.,  p.  43). 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  24.  676;  26.  289. 
Putnam,  15.  175. 


CAPITAL   PUNISHMENT. 

72.    Ought  the  death  penalty  to  be  retained  as  the  punish- 
ment for  wilful  murder  ? 
73-  Ought  capital  punishment  to  be  abolished? 

This  is  a  question  which  has  been  much  discussed ;  and 
the  arguments  on  both  sides  have,  in  various  forms,  been 
repeated  many  times.  The  question  involves  the  nature 
of  punishment  in  general.  To  what  extent  does  human  or 
civil  punishment  imply  the  principle  of  justice  or  retribu- 
tion, or  the  measuring  of  the  penalty  according  to  the 
desert  of  the  offender?  To  what  extent  does  it  imply  the 
principle  of  utility,  acting  as  a  deterrent  from  crime  and 
for  the  protection  of  society?  And,  finally,  to  what  extent 
does  it  admit  of,  and  may  it  provide  for,  the  possible 
reformation  of  the  criminal  ?  The  advocates  of  the  death 
penalty  make  much  of  the  first  of  these  principles  of  pun- 
ishment ;  while  its  opponents  make  much  more  of  the  third  ; 
and  the  second  is  claimed  by  both  sides.  How  far  does 
the  death  penalty  fulfil  the  ends  of  punishment? 

But  going  further  back,  what  is  the  limit  of  the  power  of 
government,  acting  for  society,  over  the  life  of  its  subjects  ? 
Is  the  limit  of  the  government  over  life  the  same  as  that 
of  the  individual,  mere  self-defence?  And  if  so,  is  the 
limit  of  self-defence  in  the  government  similar  to  that  of 
the  individual?  Or,  is  this  extreme  penalty  one  of  the 
necessary  acts  of  self-protection  by  organized  society 
against  its  enemies,  who  imperil  its  welfare,  if  not  its 
existence  ? 

The  actual  effect  of  the  penalty,  especially  in  its  impres- 
sive influence  as  a  deterrent  from  crime,  is  one  of  the  chief 


POLITICS.  l6l 

points  of  dispute,  and  must  be  determined  by  facts  and 
statistics  which  are  not  only  authentic  but  relevant. 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  universal  use  of  the  death  pen- 
alty hi  the  past  be  considered  as  a  presumption  in  its 
favor,  on  the  other  hand  the  progress  of  the  humane  senti- 
ment, which  has  so  greatly  modified  and  mitigated  the 
treatment  of  the  criminal,  and  has  so  much  limited  the 
application  of  this  penalty  itself,  may  be  found  to  be  a  pre- 
sumption against  it.  Yet  this  must  not  be  a  mere  sentiment, 
but  a  principle  founded  on  and  supported  by  reason ;  and 
any  sufficient  substitute  for  the  death  penalty  must  be  such 
as  shall  be  found,  on  a  fair  trial,  better  to  subserve  the  true 
ends  of  punishment. 

While  the  Scriptural  argument  has  been  urged  by  several 
writers  on  the  affirmative,  it  has  also  received  some  notice 
from  a  few  writers  on  the  negative. 

The  arrangement  of  the  references  is  made  to  suit  the 
first  question ;  and  the  sides  must  be  reversed,  if  the  second 
be  chosen. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Mor.  Philos.,  p.  316. 

Cheever's  Punishment  by  Death  (N.  Y.,  1842). 

Lewis's  Ground  and  Reason  of  Punishment,  and  Cheever's  De- 
fence of  Capital  Punishment  (N.  Y.,  1846). 

Dixon's  John  Howard,  Chap.  13. 

Fairchild's  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt.  2,  ist  Div.,  Chap.  5. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  10.  I. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  20.414. 

Blackw.,  58.  131-135. 

Bib.  Sac.,  4.  270,  435. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  2.  505. 

Chr.  R.,  14.  365. 

For.  Q.,  25.  394  (Am.  ed.,  p.  210). 

Forum,  3.  381. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1873,  Ap.  3  and  10,  pp.  433,  450;  1883, 
Sept.  13,  p.  1 6. 

Meth.  Q.,  6.  462. 

Nation,  8.  166;  16.  193,  213;  24.  263. 

New  Eng.,  1.  28 ;  3.  562  ;  4.  563. 

No.  Am.,  133.  534,  541. 

xi 


1 62      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

NEGATIVE. 

Bentham's  Rationale  of  Punishment,  Bk.  2,  Chap,  n,  12  (Gives 
advantageous  properties  of  the  death  penalty,  and  desirable 
properties  which  it  lacks). 

Bright's  Speeches  (Pop.  ed.),  p.  503. 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  3,  Chap.  13. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  art.  Death  Penalty,  1.  721  (Histori- 
cal, fair,  giving  various  opinions,  but  inclines  to  the  neg.) 
See  also  art.  Prison  Discipline,  3.  352-353. 

Moore's  Am.  Eloquence,  2.  225  (Argument  against,  by  Edward 
Livingston). 

Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli's  Life  Without  and  Within,  p.  119. 

Sumner's  Works,  3.  527. 

Sydney  Taylor's  Writings,  Selections  from  (Lond.,  1843),  pp. 
42-44,  90-94,  119-122,  176-191,  258-263,  417-427- 

Chr.  Exam.,  14.  298;  43.  355. 

Form.,  52.  322.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  113.  518. 

No.  Am.,  116.  138;  133.  550. 

Putnam,  13.  225. 

Westm.,  81.  398  (Am.  ed.,  p.  185);  91.  429  (Am.  ed.,  p.  ?oo). 


PRISONS   AND   PRISON    REFORM. 

74.     Shoubi  the  chief  purpose  of  a  prison  be  to  punish  or  to 
reform  ? 

The  treatment  of  the  criminal  by  the  State  in  order  to 
his  reformation  is  of  recent  date.  It  is  the  treatment  of 
him  as  a  man,  the  incorporation  of  Christian  love  in  govern- 
ment. It  is  the  seeking  of  the  good  of  those  who  have 
made  themselves  evil,  and  inflicted  evil  on  others,  and  thus 
converting  them  from  harmful  to  useful  members  of  society. 
The  history  of  this  movement,  known  as  Prison  Reform  or 
Prison  Discipline,  is  of  much  interest,  and  throws  light  on 
the  question. 

The  question  virtually  is,  Should  the  desert  or  the  good 
of  the  prisoner  be  most  influential  in  determining  the  kind 
and  character  of  his  treatment?  Or,  if  both  be  sought, 
what  proportion  shall  they  bear  to  each  other?  and  how 
may  they  be  made  to  harmonize?  Shall  punishment  be 


POLITICS.  163 

considered  as  a  primary  end,  to  which  the  good  or  reforma- 
tion of  the  criminal  shall  be  secondary  or  but  incidental? 
Or  shall  his  reformation  be  made  the  primary  end,  and 
what  may  be  called  punishment  be  adapted  to  secure  this  ? 

Punishment  is  an  evil  inflicted  by  the  government  on  an 
inidividual,  as  a  recompense  for  an  evil  done  by  him  ;  while 
the  good  which  it  seeks  for  him  is,  not  the  mere  bestowing 
on  him  of  a  benefit,  but  the  making  of  him  good  in  himself. 
A  prison  having  this  for  its  object  is  a  reformatory.  Should 
all  prisons,  then,  be  reformatories? 

The  question  of  the  susceptibility  of  criminals  to  refor- 
mation will  lead  to  a  study  of  the  nature  of  the  criminal 
character,  as  well  as  of  the  various  degrees  of  criminality. 

The  references  will  be  found  to  discuss  the  nature  and 
end  of  punishment,  and  to  give  an  account  of  Prison 
Reform. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  6. 

Behrends's  Socialism  and  Christianity,  Chap.  9. 

Bentham's  Rationale  of  Punishment,  Bk.  i. 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi,  Chap.  31. 

Carlyle's  Latter  Day  Pamphlets :  Model  Prisons. 

Dixon's  John  Howard,  esp.  Chap.  8. 

Encyc.  Brit,  19.  747. 

S.  M.  Green's  Crime :  its  Nature,  Causes,  Treatment,  and  Pre- 
vention (Philad.,  1889),  Art.  3,  Chap.  1-5. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  352. 

Lewis's  Ground  and  Reason  of  Punishment,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  1-6. 

Reports  of  the  Prison  Discipline  Soc.  (Bost.). 

Rogers's  Social  Economy,  Chap.  26-27. 

Spencer's  Essays.  Mor.,  Polit.,  and  ^Esthetic,  Ess.  6. 

Wines's  State  of  Prisons  and  Child  Saving  Institutions,  Bk.  i, 
Pt.  i,  esp.  Chap.  15  ;  Bk.  8,  Pt.  i,  esp.  Chap.  6  ;  Pt.  2,  Chap. 
17-19.  The  last,  Same,  Princ.,  N.  s.,  1.  784. 

Winter's  New  York  State  Reformatory  in  Elmira  (Lond.,  1891). 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  10.  i. 

Blackw.,  58.  129. 

Chr.  Exam.,  3.  203;  10.  15  ;  20.  376;  26.  54. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  2.  201. 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Jan.  9,  p.  44. 

Ed.  R.,22.  I  ;  30.  463  ;  64.  316  (Am.  ed.,  p.  169). 


164      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

For.  Q.,  12.  49. 

Fortn.,  52.  12.      Same,  Liv.  Age,  182.  387.    (The    Ethics  ot 

Punishment.) 
Nation,  9.  206. 
Nat.  Q.,  8.  i. 

New  Eng.,  32.  71  ;  45.473. 
N.  Princ.,  3.  87. 
New  York  R.,  6.  124. 

No.  Am.,  47.  452  ;  49.  I  ;  137.  40 ;  140.  291. 
Princ.,  43.  61. 

SUICIDE. 

75.    Should  there  be  legal  enactments  for  the  prevention  of 
suicide  ? 

Suicide,  as  a  growing  evil,  requires  measures  for  its  pre- 
vention. How  is  it  preventable?  The  obvious  method 
would  be  the  removal  of  its  causes.  This  would  be,  indeed, 
a  certain  and  effectual  remedy;  but  beside  what  might 
be  done,  if  anything,  in  this  respect,  is  there  any  other 
partial  remedy  which  would  be  more  immediate  in  its 
operation  ? 

In  what  respect,  if  at  all,  is  law  applicable  to  it  ?  It  is 
evident  that  as  an  act  already  committed  it  is  not  punish- 
able, since  the  offender,  as  the  victim  of  his  own  act,  has 
passed  beyond  the  reach  of  human  law.  Attempts  at  sui- 
cide might  be  made  punishable.  But  can  any  provision  of 
law  in  respect  to  it  as  a  prospective  act  be  in  any  way 
made  applicable  so  that  it  shall  operate  for  its  prevention  ? 
This  is  the  question  to  be  determined. 

There  might  be  difficulty  in  framing  and  applying  a  law 
so  that  it  should  not  exceed  the  bounds  of  justice.  It 
might,  for  instance,  not  be  easy  to  determine  the  degree  of 
guilt  and  responsibility  to  be  imputed  to  the  person  who 
has  committed  the  act.  Often  the  cause  is  unknown ;  and 
in  many  cases  there  is  a  presumption  that  the  one  who 
committed  the  deed  is  insane. 

Should  a  law  be  made  to  take  cognizance  of  it,  it  must 
of  course  be  framed  in  accordance  with  the  enlightened 


POLITICS,  165 

views  of  the  age  in  general,  and  especially  in  reference  to 
suicide. 

The  books  and  articles  referred  to  treat  of  the  whole 
subject  of  suicide  :  statistics  of  its  prevalence,  its  causes, 
its  remedies,  its  legal  aspects,  etc.  A  thorough  study  of 
the  whole  subject  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  an  intelli- 
gent understanding  and  discussion  of  the  question. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  117  (Felo  de  se). 

Blackstone's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Eng.,  Bk.  4,  Chap. 

H,  HI. 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  2,  Chap.  16. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  20.  799  ;  gth  ed.,  22.  629. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works  (Bost.,  1854),  4.  535. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  1.  223-235  ;  2  46-65. 
Morselli's  Suicide  (Internal.  Sci.  S.). 
O'Dea's  Suicide  :  its  Philos.,  Causes,  and  Prevention. 
Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  3. 
Blackw.,  127.  719.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  67. 
Contemp.,  39.  81.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  148.  376. 
Contemp.,  43.  906. 
Dial.  (Chicago),  2.  257. 
Forum,  2.  40. 
Galaxy,  21.  188. 
Harper,  18.  516. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  12.  445  ;  13.  72. 
Nation,  33.  517  ;  42.  242. 
Nature,  25.  193. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  8.  88;  16.  798 ;  20.  220 ;  35.  303. 
Univ.  Q.,  47.  337. 
Westm.,  68.  52  (Am.  ed.,  p.  30).   Same,  Eel.  M.,  42.  257.    Same, 

Liv.  Age,  54.  491. 


THE   OATH. 

76.  Is  the  administering  of  the  oath  a  necessary  and  efficient 

means  of  securing  the  truth  from  witnesses,  or  the 
faithful  discharge  of  official  duty  ? 

77.  Should  all  civil  and  judicial  oaths  be  abolished? 

78.  Is  the  oath,  as  required  by  human  law,  in  accordance 

with  Scripture  ? 


1 66      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

The  design  of  the  oath  is  to  magnify  or  intensify  the 
motive  for  telling  the  truth,  'or  for  the  performance  of 
official  duty.  Its  influence  in  promoting  this  end  will,  it 
is  evident,  be  in  proportion  to  the  impression  it  makes; 
and  this  impression  will  be  likely  to  be  deepest  and  most 
influential  on  those  who  are  most  conscientious,  and  who 
therefore  least  need  it. 

The  universal  use  of  the  oath  implies  that  there  is  a  rea- 
son for  it.  In  what  does  this  reason  consist,  as  found  in  its 
nature  and  use  ?  What  is  the  proper  function  and  appli- 
cation of  the  oath?  What  is  its  limitation,  and  what  its 
abuse  ? 

It  is  plain  that  it  should  not  be  made  too  common,  and 
that  it  should  be  administered  and  taken  with  due  solem- 
nity. How  much  is  there  of  indefiniteness  in  the  obliga- 
tion imposed  by  the  oath,  as  to  precisely  what  one  shall 
and  shall  not  say  and  do?  Is  a  solemn  affirmation  a  suf- 
ficient substitute  for  the  oath,  and  less  liable  to  objection? 

There  will  be  found  in  the  books  and  articles  referred  to 
something  relating  to  all  the  questions  given. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12.  562. 

Bentham's  "  Swear  not  at  all."     Taken  from  the  Introd.  to  his 

Rationale  of  Evidence. 
Boyd's  Eclectic  Mor.  Philos.,  pp.  230-233. 
Dymond's  Principles   of  Morality,  Ess.  2,  Chap.  7-8  (Argues 

that  oaths  are  unscriptural  and  unreasonable). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  16.  398;  9th  ed.,  17.  698. 
Fairchild's  Mor.  Philos.,  p.  312. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  I. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.  of  Bib.  Lit.,  7.  256. 
Mahan's  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  12,  p.  369. 
Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  16-21. 
Tyler's  Oaths  :  their  Origin,  Nature,  and  Hist. 
Wayland's  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Of  Veracity,  Chap.  3. 
Whewell's  Elements  of  Morality,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap,  u,  23. 


POLITICS.  167 


LIBERTY  OF  THE  PRESS. 

79.   Should  the  liberty  of  the  press  be  left  by  the  government 
unrestricted? 

Liberty  of  opinion,  liberty  of  speech,  and  liberty  of  the 
press  belong  together,  and  should  all  be  enjoyed  in  every 
free  government.  This  is  a  sacred  right  of  the  individual, 
and,  when  properly  used,  promotive  of  the  general  welfare. 
It  is  a  natural  right,  included  under  the  general  right  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  which  the  government  must,  indeed,  guarantee 
and  protect,  and  should  not  itself  violate.  The  censorship 
of  the  press,  formerly  practised  by  governments,  is  a  viola- 
tion of  its  liberty. 

But  liberty  may  be  abused,  and  for  any  flagrant  abuse  of 
the  press  its  managers  should  be  liable.  Its  liberty  cannot, 
therefore,  be  absolutely  unrestricted.  The  question  then  is, 
not  whether  certain  restrictions  are  not  necessarily  implied 
in  it,  but  whether  there  should  be  added  positive  restrictions 
imposed  by  the  government.  The  history  of  the  relation  of 
the  government  to  the  press,  found  in  some  of  the  books 
referred  to,  is  instructive  on  this  point.  The  struggle  has 
been  for  liberty,  and  in  many  countries  has  been  more  or 
less  successful.  But  to  preserve  so  great  a  power  from  abuse, 
does  it  not  seem  that  some  control  of  it  might  be  necessary 
and  wholesome  ?  Then  the  question  might  arise  whether  the 
control  itself  might  not  be  liable  to  become  a  still  greater 
abuse. 

Cooley's  Constitutional  Limitations,  5th  ed.,  Chap.  12. 

Disraeli's  Curiosities  of  Lit.,  2.  399. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  13.  357-359,  360-373  ;  gth  ed.,  Press  Laws, 

19.  710. 

Franklin's  Works,  2.  285. 

Hallam's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.     See  Index. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  3.  6. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  314. 
Lieber's  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  4. 
May's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  i,  2,  Chap.  7,  9,  10. 


1 68      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS 

Milton's  Areopagitica.     See  Prose  Works. 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2,  Chap. 

44,  sec.  1880-1892. 

Taswell-Langmead's  Eng.  Constitutional  Hist     See  Index. 
Tocqueville's  Democ.  in  Am.,  V.  i,  Chap.  n. 
Blackw.,  36.  373. 
Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  5.  83. 

Ed.  R.,  18.  98  ;  22.  72;  25.  112  ,  27.  102;  37.  no. 
No.  Brit.,  13.  159  (Am.  ed.,  p.  86). 
Quar.,  35.  556.        Westm.,  3.  285. 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 
80.  Is  the  union  of  Church  and  State  a  benefit  to  any  nation  ? 

In  order  to  a  good  understanding  of  this  question,  some 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  relation  of  the  Church  and 
State  is  important. 

The  theory  of  their  union  implies  that,  since  the  Church 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  promotion  of  the  national 
welfare,  the  State  should  support  it,  and  thus  make  certain 
and  adequate  provision  for  the  religious  wants  of  the 
people. 

But  is  this  a  proper  function  of  the  State?  Or  should 
not  the  support  of  religion  be  rather  voluntary,  and  not  by 
State  authority?  How  far  is  a  State  Church  consistent,  or 
inconsistent,  with  entire  religious  liberty?  Is  State  sup- 
port any  advantage  to  the  Church  itself?  Is  it  strictly  con- 
sistent with  a  democracy,  or  government  by  the  people? 
What  has  been  the  influence  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
the  promotion  of  religion?  How  much  is  the  promotion 
of  religion  in  England  due  to  the  voluntary  organizations 
and  efforts  of  the  Nonconformists?  What  has  been  the 
working  of  the  voluntary  system  in  the  United  States  ? 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  16. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  2,  Chap.  103,  pp.  554-562,  566- 

570. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy,  pp.  158-163. 
Cooler's  Constitutional  Limitations,  5th  ed.,  Chap.  13. 


POLITICS.  169 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  3,  Chap.  14,  15. 

Emerson's  Eng.  Traits,  Chap.  13. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8.  247,  370. 

Escott's  England,  Chap.  26. 

Geffcken's  .Church  and  State  :  their  Relations  historically  de- 
veloped, trans.  (Lond.,  1877). 

Gneist's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const.,  trans.,  V.  2,  Chap.  52. 

Grimke's  Nature  and  Tendency  of  Free  Institutions,  3d  ed. 
(Works),  Bk.  3,  Chap.  i. 

Jennings's  Eighty  Years  of  Repub.  Gov.  in  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  9. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  426. 

Martineau's  Miscellanies  (Bost.,  1852),  p.  105. 

May's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  2,  Chap.  12-14. 

Noel's  Essay  on  the  Union  of  Church  and  State  (N.  Y.,  1849). 

Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  10. 

Spencer's  Social  Statics,  Chap.  24. 

Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2,  Chap. 
43,  sec.  1870-1879. 

Taswell-Langmead's  Eng.  Constitutional  Hist.     See  Index. 

Whewell's  Elements  of  Morality,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  16,  17. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  ist  S.,  6.  207. 

Cong.  Q.,  15.  508. 

Contemp.,  26.  193.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  291.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
126.  387. 

Ed.  R.,  69.  231  (Am.  ed.,  p.  121);  128.  251  (Am.  ed.,  p.  128); 
135.  366  (Am.  ed.,  p.  186)  ;  146.  225  (Am.  ed.,  p.  116). 

Fortn.,  2.  161  ;  6.  769;  7.  197. 

Galaxy,  21.  333- 

Internat.  R.,  4.  345. 

Meth.  Q.,  9.  322. 

Nation,  9.  124,  146. 

New  York  R.,  8.  285. 

I9th  Cent.,  1.  50 :  4.  627. 

No.  Brit.,  10.  350  (Am.  ed.,  p.  188). 

Quar.,  65.  97  ;  147.  48  (Am.  ed.,  p.  26). 

Westm.,  5.  204;  26.  244  (Am.  ed.,  p.  132)  ;  36.  308  (Am.  ed., 
p.  140). 

A  NATIONAL  BANKRUPT  LAW. 
8 1 .    Should  there  be  a  national  bankrupt  law  ? 

A  bankrupt  law  should  be  framed  for  the  benefit  both  of 
the  creditors  and  of  the  unfortunate  debtor.     Its  principles 


I -JO      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

have  been  generally  approved,  and  its  necessity  admitted. 
It  may,  however,  be  a  question  with  some  whether  one  of 
its  main  provisions,  the  release  of  the  debtor  from  his  debts, 
is  strictly  just.  The  abuse  to  which  a  bankrupt  law  is  lia- 
ble also  furnishes  to  the  negative  ground  of  objection.  Is 
such  abuse  inevitable?  or  can  it  be  provided  for  and  pre- 
vented? Is  the  abuse  of  the  law  likely  to  overbalance  its 
benefits?  Why  has  the  country  been  left,  so  much  of  the 
time  during  its  history,  without  a  national  bankrupt  law  ? 
Could  its  necessity  have  been  generally  felt? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  283. 

Benton's  Abridgment  of  the  Debates  of  Congress,  V.  2,  3,  7,  14. 

(See  Index  at  the  end  of  each  vol.,  Bankrupt  Act.) 
Benton's  Thirty  Years  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  V.  2,  Chap.  13,  14, 

66,67. 

Calhoun's  Works  (N.  Y.,  1856),  3.  506. 
Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  2,  Chap.  2,  Insolvency. 

Same,  in  part,  Hunt,  8.  294. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  4.  415  ;  9th  ed.,  3.  341. 
Hildreth's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  5.  347,  509-510;  6.  677. 
Kent's  Commentaries  on  Am.  Law,  V.  2,  Lect.  37.  III. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  223. 

Mallory's  Life  and  Speeches  of  Clay  (N.  Y.,  1843),  2.  508. 
Schouler's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  456. 
Seward's  Works,  2.  370. 
Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2,  Chap.  16, 

sec.  1105-1115. 

Walker's  Am.  Law,  pp.  145-148,  760. 
Webster's  Works,  5.  3,  26. 
Am.  Law  R.,  10.  393. 
Hunt,  4.  22  ;  5.  360 ;  28.  439. 
Internal.  R.,  9.  697. 
Nation,  17.  381  ;  22.  124;  34.  115. 
Nat.  Q.,  4.  97. 
New  York  R.,  7.  440. 
Niles's  Reg.,  19.  403  :  21.  382,  407. 
Westm.,  46.  500  (Am.  ed.,  p.  254). 


POLITICS. 


DIVORCE. 


171 


82.  Should  Divorce  laws  be  strict  or  liberal? 

83.  Should  there  be  a  National  Divorce   law  instead  of 

State  laws  ? 

The  subject  of  divorce  is  one  of  the  topics  which  has 
excited  much  interest.  The  occasion  of  this  has  been  the 
increase  hi  the  number  of  divorces.  This  fact  has  led  to  a 
discussion  of  the  various  divorce  laws  of  the  different  States, 
and  of  the  conditions  they  severally  prescribe  on  which  a 
divorce  may  be  obtained. 

In  order  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  subject,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  go  back  of  law,  and  ascertain  the  causes  which 
produce  a  state  of  things  affording  occasion  for  divorce 
laws.  Why  are  there  unhappy  marriages?  And  since 
there  are,  how  should  the  law,  in  view  of  this  fact,  be 
framed  ?  Can  such  a  state  of  things  be  best  met  by  main- 
taining a  stringent  law,  or  by  relaxing  the  provisions  of  the 
law?  What  are  the  workings,  respectively,  of  a  stringent 
law,  and  of  one  more  lax? 

The  sanctity  of  marriage  should  be  maintained.  But 
suppose  this  to  be  already  persistently  and  wantonly 
violated,  may  the  law  sever  a  tie  which  exists  only  in 
form,  and  no  longer  in  reality?  Some  who  advocate  strict 
laws  admit  the  necessity,  in  certain  cases,  of  allowing  sep- 
aration without  divorce.  In  what  respect  would  such  a 
separation  differ,  essentially  and  practically,  from  divorce 
itself?  There  is  a  difference.  What  is  it,  and  of  how 
much  importance?  Is  there  here  some  relaxation  of  the 
law,  and  adaptation  of  it  to  circumstances?  And  must 
there  not  be?  But  how  much? 

Beyond  question,  the  law  should  assume,  and  be  framed 
with  the  view  of  promoting,  the  permanency  of  the  marriage 
relation,  and  should  not  be  made  one  of  the  influences 
which  would  tend  to  impair  this.  The  law  should  regard 
marriage  as  for  life,  and  divorce  as  the  exception.  But 


IJ2      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

in  order  to  this,  must  not  unhappy  marriages  likewise  be 
the  exception? 


Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  6.  157. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  pp.  188-189. 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi,  Chap.  25. 

Christ,  etc.  :  Boston  Monday  Lectures,  1880-1881,  Lect.  8. 
Same,  Independent  (N.  Y.),  1881,  Feb.  3,  p.  6. 

Greeley's  Recollections  of  a  Busy  Life,  p.  571  (A  Discussion 
between  Greeley  and  Owen). 

Hopkins's  Law  of  Love,  p.  257 

Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  V.  3,  Pt.  I,  Ess.  19  (Gives  argu- 
ments on  both  sides). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  821. 

Milton:  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce  ;  The  Judgment  of 
Martin  Bucer  concerning  Divorce ;  Tetrachordon  ;  Colas- 
tenon.  See  Prose  Works  (Bonn's  ed.,  V.  3). 

Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  7. 

Proffatt's  Woman  before  the  Law,  Chap.  7. 

Thwing,  The  Family,  Chap.  12. 

A  Rep.  on  Marriage  and  Divorce  in  the  U.  S.,  186710  1876. 
By  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Commissioner  of  Labor,  rev.  ed. 
(Wash.,  1891). 

Woolsey's  Divorce  and  Divorce  Legislation,  2d.  ed.  Same  (in 
substance),  New  Eng.,  26.  88,  212,  482  ;  27.  12,  517,  764. 

And.  R.,  10.  602. 

Bib.  Sac.,  23.  384;  43.  318. 

Cent.,  1.  411. 

Contemp.,  51.  570.  Same,  Forum,  3.  161.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
108.  773- 

Eel.  M.,  72.  617. 

Ed.  R.,  105.  181  (Am.  ed.,  p.  94). 

Ev.  Sat.,  11   75. 

Forum,  2.  429  (National  Divorce  Legislation),  8.  349,  515; 
10.  115. 

Fraser,  1.  427. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1879,  June,  19,  p.  14  ;  1881,  Sept.  29, 
p.  7;  1884,  Feb.  14,  p.  17;  Mar.  20,  p.  5  ;  Apr.  24,  p.  17  ; 
1889,  Nov.  14,  pp.  6-7.  (Dike:  Where  People  go  for 
Divorce.  Nine  Tenths  do  not  go  beyond  their  own  Home. 
Bears  against  National  Legislation.) 

Internat.  R.,  1.  794;  11.  130;  14.  178. 

Meth.  R.,  52.  212  (Mar.-Apr.,  1892). 


POLITICS. 


173 


Nation,  7  453,  504;  15.  205;  37.  408. 

New  Eng.,  25.  436;  41.  588;  43.  48  ;  56.  40. 

No.  Am.,  90.  414;  130.  547;  13S.  305,  315;  139.  30,  234; 
144.  429.  Uniform  Marriage  and  Divorce  Laws  (Against 
National  Legislation),  149.  513-538,  641-652;  150.  110- 
135  (Women's  Views  of  Divorce). 

No.  Brit,  35.  187  (Am.  ed.,  p.  98). 

Our  Day,  1.  49 ;  6.  107. 

Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  4.  592. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  23.  224,  663. 

Pub.  Opin.,  8.  103-106,  141-142,  216-217. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  9.  90-92  (Shows  the  necessity  for  National  Legis- 
lation) ;  10.  39  ;  12.  227;  13.  169. 

Putnam,  8.  630. 

Westm.,  82.  442  (Am.  ed.,  p.  206);  130.  186,  358,  399;  131. 
676. 


IMMIGRATION. 

84.  Do   the   benefits   of  foreign  immigration  outweigh  its 

evils  1     Or,  Do   the    evils   of  foreign    immigration 
threaten  to  overbalance  its  benefits  ? 

85.  Should  foreign  immigration  to  this  country  be  restricted* 

The  immigration  to  this  country  is  chiefly  from  Europe, 
and  it  is  this  European  immigration  which  is  embraced  in 
the  question. 

The  country  has  been  open  to  immigrants  of  all  classes, 
from  all  countries.  Its  free  government,  its  extraordinary 
growth  and  prosperity,  and  its  large  tracts  of  unoccupied 
territory,  have  likewise  made  it  inviting  ;  and  large  numbers, 
in  a  steady  stream,  have  flocked  to  it  from  the  Old  World. 
The  spirit  of  the  people  and  the  policy  of  the  government 
have  made  them  welcome,  and  their  coming  has  been  re- 
garded as  a  mutual  benefit.  They  have  been  welcomed  to 
the  larger  freedom  they  here  enjoy ;  and  this  freedom  has 
doubtless  had  on  them,  on  the  whole,  a  beneficent  influ- 
ence. They  have  become  a  part  of  the  nation,  and  have 
contributed  to  its  growth  and  prosperity. 

Yet  they  constitute  a  new  and  foreign  element,  requiring 


1/4      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

assimilation  to  the  native  population.  Consider,  then,  who 
they  are,  from  what  countries  they  come  and  in  what  pro- 
portion from  the  different  countries,  what  is  their  general 
character,  and  how  readily  they  adapt  themselves  to  their 
adopted  country.  How  do  they  affect  and  modify  society, 
politics,  and  government?  What  evils  do  they  bring? 
How  do  they  affect  the  prevalence  of  illiteracy  and  crime  ? 
Can  our  democratic  society  and  government  stand  the 
strain  produced  by  so  large  an  addition  and  so  diverse  an 
element  to  its  citizenship?  For  these  become,  under  our 
government,  not  merely  subjects,  but  rulers. 

Restriction  of  immigration  would  aim  to  diminish  its 
evils,  while  preserving  its  benefits.  The  difficulty  would 
be,  first,  to  define,  and  then  to  carry  into  execution,  the 
principle  of  exclusion.  Some  oppose  exclusion  as  con- 
trary to  the  spirit  of  our  free  institutions.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  seems  to  be  a  growing  conviction  that  the 
welfare  of  the  nation  demands  some  degree  of  restriction. 
The  probability,  however,  is,  that  the  exclusion  of  Euro- 
pean immigrants  will  not  be  large,  and  that  this  "land 
of  the  free  "  will  continue  to  be  "  an  asylum  for  the  op- 
pressed of  other  nations." 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  Emigration,  6.  571. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit-  Sci.,  Emigration,  2.  85. 

Problems  of  Am.  Civilization  (N.  YM  1888),  p.  I. 

Reports  from  the  Consuls  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  22,  No.  76,  April, 

1887,  Emigration  from  Europe. 
Roscher's  Polit.  Econ.,  2.  349,  sec.  256. 
Prof.  R.  M.  Smith's  Emigration  and  Immigration. 
Strong's  Our  Country,  Chap.  4. 
Thompson's  Workman,  Chap.  10. 
And.  R.,  9.  251. 
Allan.,  29.  654. 
Cent.,  13.  791. 

Ed.  R.,  100.  236  (Am.  ed.,  p.  121). 
Fortn.,  22.  273. 
Forum,  3.  532. 

Independent,  1891,  Oct.  I,  pp.  1-5. 
Nation.  37.  6,-  38.  6;  45.  108,  518. 
I9th  Cent.,  9.  292,  358;  16.  530,  764;  17.  280,-  20.  553. 


POLITICS.  175 

No.  Am.,   82.   248;    134.  347;    138.  78;    147.    165;   152.   27 

(Lodge). 

Polit.  Sci.,  Q.,  3.  46,  197,  408;  4.  480  (Italian  Immigration). 
Pub.  Opin.,  3.  249,  also  see  Index ;  4.  250. 


CHINESE  IMMIGRATION. 

86.  Has  Chinese  immigration  thus  far  been,  on  the  whole, 

rather  a  benefit  than  an  injury  to  the  country  ? 

87.  Should  it  be  the  policy  of  the  National  Government  i'c 

impose  stringent  restrictions  on  Chinese  immigration  I 

The  question  of  Chinese  immigration  has  excited  much 
interest  and  discussion.  This  was  inevitable  from  the  fact 
that  the  Chinese,  unlike  immigrants  from  any  of  the  Euro- 
pean countries,  are  wholly  alien  to  our  civilization  itself. 
Are  they,  then,  it  has  been  asked,  to  be  with  us,  but  not  of 
us?  Can  a  people  of  this  sort,  who  do  not  seem  likely 
soon  to  be  assimilated  with  the  people  of  the  country,  be 
regarded  as  a  desirable  element  of  the  population?  Yet 
they  are  said  to  be  peaceable  and  orderly,  industrious 
and  frugal. 

But  it  is  charged  against  them  that  they  cheapen  labor. 
This  is  a  practical  matter,  which  the  laborer  especially  can 
appreciate.  This  is  at  once  their  merit  and  their  misfor- 
tune. While  it  makes  them  serviceable,  it  arouses  against 
them  the  hatred  of  those  whom  they  supplant. 

Considerations  like  these  have  led  to  a  policy,  not  of 
partial,  but  of  entire  exclusion.  It  is  argued  that,  as  a 
people,  they  are  undesirable  as  inhabitants,  and  it  is  there- 
fore enacted  that  no  more  be  admitted. 

Is  such  a  policy  wise,  just,  politic,  Christian?  Does  the 
exigency  of  the  situation  demand  it  ?  Are  these  inoffensive 
and  useful  strangers  really  so  great  a  menace  to  the  peace 
and  welfare  of  the  country  as  some  seem  to  fear? 

The  subject  is  worthy  of  careful,  serious,  and  impartial 
consideration.  It  has  two  sides,  both  of  which  are  well 
represented  in  the  references. 


176     JtEFEXEXCES  FOR  LITERARY   M'OKK'ERS. 

Congressional  Record,  45th  Cong.  3d  Sess.,  V.  8,  Pt.  2,  pp. 
1264-1276,  1299-1314,  1383-1400;  47th  Cong,  ist  Sess., 
V.  13,  Pt.  3.  pp.  2551-256?,  2607-2617;  5oth  Cong,  ist 
Sess.,  V.  19,  Pt.  i,  pp.  427-443- 

Cooper's  Am.  Politics,  Bk.  I,  p.  281. 

Holland's  Every  Day  Topics,  2.  255. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  409. 

Report  of  Committee  to  investigate  Chinese  Emigration:  Senate 
Reports,  44th  Cong.  2d  Sess.,  No.  689. 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1870,  pp.  422-434. 

Seward's  Chinese  Immigration. 

R.  M.  Smith's  Emigration  and  Immigration,  Chap.  n. 

Townshend's  Chinese  Problem  (pam.). 

Forum,  6.  196. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1876,  May  n,  p.  14.  1877,  Nov.  22,  p.  4. 
1879,  Jan.  23,  p.  16;  Feb.  13,  p.  4;  Mar.  13,  p.  6;  Apr.  3, 
p.  i  ;  Sept.  25,  p.  5  ;  Oct.  2,  pp.  4,  15  ;  Oct.  9,  p.  14.  1880, 
Sept.  9,  p.  5  ;  Sept.  16,  p  5.  1881,  Jan.  20,  p.  16;  Feb.  10, 
p.  i.  1882,  Apr.  20,  p.  2.  1891,  Oct.  i,  p.  4. 

Internat.  R.,  10.  51. 

Nation,  11.  20;  28.  130,  145;  32.  134;  34.  222,  337;  42.  272. 

NewEng.,  29.  i ;  36.  i. 

No.  Am.,  126.  506;  134.  562;  139.  256;  143.  26;  148.476. 

Overland,  N.S.,  2.627;  6.507,573;  7.54,91,113,120,225,414, 
428. 

Unita.  R.,  5.  510. 


THE   RAILWAY  AND  THE   STATE. 
88.   Should  the  government  own  and  operate  the  railroads  ? 

The  railroad  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  modern 
agencies  which  have  vitally  affected  human  interests.  To 
the  vast  increase  of  activity  and  communication,  especially 
in  the  form  of  travel  and  transportation,  it  has  been  one  of 
the  greatest  contributors.  Hence  it  has  had  a  large  share 
in  bringing  about  a  new  condition  of  things,  not  only  in 
trade  but  in  society.  In  short,  it  is  one  of  the  chief  factors 
of  the  great  modern  revolution  in  human  affairs.  Hence  it 
has  become  of  the  first  importance,  —  one  of  the  necessities 
of  modern  civilization. 


POLITICS.  177 

This  importance  and  influence  of  the  railroad  makes  it  a 
prime  factor  of  a  new  social  and  political  problem,  which 
is  passing  through  its  various  stages  of  development.  For 
it  is  not  of  mere  private  concern ;  it  is  eminently  a  public 
interest.  Private  enterprise  has,  indeed,  developed  it  to 
its  present  vast  proportions  ;  but  its  close  relations  to  society 
give  it  also  a  relation  to  the  state.  What,  then,  shall  this 
relation  be?  Shall  the  state  do  more  than  supervise  and 
regulate  railway  affairs?  Rich  and  powerful  corporations 
have  sprung  up,  having  the  control  and  management  of  the 
immense  and  complicated  business  pertaining  to  the  rail- 
roads of  the  country.  Shall  these  be  superseded  by  the 
government  ?  Can  the  government  bring  into  the  manage- 
ment more  unity,  system,  and  economy,  with  cheaper  rates  ? 
Would  the  railroad,  under  government  management,  be  less, 
or  more,  a  disturbing  element  in  politics? 

For  the  determining  of  this  particular  question  the  whole 
subject  of  railway  management,  and  of  its  relation  to  the 
state,  must  be  considered ;  hence  the  references  cover  the 
whole  ground.  In  other  countries  the  experiment  has  been 
already  tried ;  in  this  country  its  success  must  be  considered 
as  at  least  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Adams's  Railroads:  their  Origin  and  Problems  (N.  Y.,  1879), 

pp.  94-116. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  511-516. 
Dabney's  Public  Regulation  of  the  Railways  (N.  Y.  and  Lond., 

1889),  esp.  pp.  202-205. 
Ely's  Problems  of  To-day,  Chap.  28. 
Hadley's  Railroad  Transportation,  Chap.  13.     See  also  Index. 

State  Control. 
Hudson's  Railways  and  the  Republic.     See  Index,  State  Rail 

ways.     See  esp.  pp.  326-328. 
Jevons's  Methods  of  Social  Reform,  p.  353. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  493. 
Atlan.,  37.  360, 691;  38.  72  (All  by  C.  F.  Adams,  Jr.). 
Brit.  Q.,  57.  381  (Am.  ed.,  p.  205). 
Contemp.,  22.  235. 
Fortn.,  20.  557;  45.  737;  46.  671. 
Forum,  5.  299,  469. 

12 


178      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Nation,  28.  298;  30.  40;  33.  67 ;  34.  224;  35.  150;  36.  100 ; 

37.  137. 

New  Eng.,  30.  713. 
N.  Princ.,  2.  355  (Hadley). 
No.  Am.,  104.  476;  108.  130-164,  esp.  p.  159;  110.  116:  112. 

31-61,  esp.  pp.  49-50  (Adams);  138.  461. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  23.  289;  29.  i-u,  esp.  pp.  10-11  (Hadley). 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  7.  406 ;  13.  36. 
Quar.,  74.  224  (Am.  ed.,  p.  145);  134.  369  (Am.  ed.,  p.  197); 

158.  79- 
Westm.,  83.  218  (Am.  ed.,  p.  99);  95.  150  (Am.  ed.,  p.  68); 

103.  29  (Am.  ed.,  p.  13). 


POSTAL  TELEGRAPHY. 

89.    Should  our  national  government  establish  postal 
telegraphy  ? 

The  telegraph  has  contributed  not  less  than  the  railroad, 
and  in  a  higher  sense,  to  the  great  modern  revolution.  By 
means  of  a  natural  agent,  it  has  quickened,  multiplied,  and 
intensified  thought,  and  made  its  communication  instanta- 
neous and  universal.  It  has  abolished  space  and  time,  and 
made  the  world  a  vast  whispering  gallery.  It  is  as  much  a 
necessity  as  the  railroad,  and  its  relation  to  the  public  is  as 
close. 

How,  then,  can  it  be  best  and  most  employed  for  the 
service  of  the  public  ?  If  made  a  part  of  the  postal  service, 
it  might  be  brought  much  more  into  ordinary  use.  Yet  this 
would  extend  the  sphere  and  increase  the  power  of  gov- 
ernment, and  thus  give  larger  occasion  for  abuse  and 
corruption. 

The  question  may,  then,  be  considered  in  two  parts : 
First,  can  the  public  service  rendered  by  the  telegraph  be 
better  performed  by  the  government?  Secondly,  will  the 
government  itself,  in  its  performance  of  the  service,  neithef 
transcend  its  own  proper  sphere  nor  suffer  detriment  ? 

Hartley's  Railroad  Transportation,  pp.  257-258. 
Jevons's  Methods  of  Social  Reform,  p.  277.    Ibid.,  p.  293.    Same, 
Fortn.,  18.  826. 


POLITICS.  1 79 

House  Miscellanies,  1872-73,  No.  73. 

Rep.  of  P.  M.  Gen.,  1872-73,  p.  20  ;  1873-74,  p.  xliv. 

Sen.  Reports,  1873-74,  No.  242. 

Atlan.,  31.  230. 

Brit.  Q.,  59.  455  (Am.  ed.,  p.  244). 

Ed.  R.,  132.  209  (Am.  ed.,  p.  107);  143.  177  (Am.  ed.,  p.  90). 

Fortn.,  45.  737. 

Forum,  4.  561. 

Fraser,  89.  437. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1883,  Nov.   I,  p.   20;    Dec.  20,  p.  22. 

1884,  Feb.  14,  p.  16. 
Internal.  R.,  1.  383-384. 
Liv.  Age,  96.  444. 
Nation,  15.   402  (Neg.) ;    16.  90   (Neg.);    32.   55;    37.   90; 

38.  136. 
No.  Am.,  117.  92-107 ;  132.  369 ;  137.  422,  521  ;  139.  51  ;  142. 

227  ;  149.  44  (Ely). 
O.  and  N.,  11.  7. 
Penn.  Mo.,  8.  258. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  19.  400. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  14.  153. 


PROHIBITION   OF   THE   LIQUOR   TRAFFIC. 

90.  Is  the  legal  prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
spirituous  liquors  as  a  beverage  right  in  principle 
and  efficient  in  practice  ? 

The  argument  for  the  prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  spirituous  liquors  is  simple,  and  to  many  seems  en- 
tirely conclusive.  It  is  based  on  the  well  known  fact  that 
intemperance  is  the  prolific  cause  of  pauperism  and  crime. 
But  the  entire  prohibition  of  the  traffic  in  liquor  as  a  bev- 
erage, it  is  maintained,  is  the  only  effectual  preventive  of 
intemperance.  Therefore  government  has  the  power,  and  it 
is  its  duty,  for  the  promotion  of  the  general  welfare,  to  enact 
and  enforce  a  prohibitory  law ;  and  facts  and  statistics  are 
given  to  show  that  where  this  has  been  done  it  has  resulted 
in  a  marked  diminution  of  crime  and  pauperism,  and  a 
great  increase  of  prosperity  and  happiness. 


I  SO      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

The  opposition  to  prohibition  has  respect  to  it  as  a  prin- 
ciple, and  to  its  working.  Those  who  oppose  the  principle 
of  prohibition,  while  freely  admitting  the  great  evil  of  in- 
temperance, maintain  that  the  drinking  of  spirituous  liquors 
is  not,  considered  in  itself,  wrong  or  injurious,  which  can 
be  truly  said  only  of  drinking  to  excess.  The  entire  prohi- 
bition of  the  sale  of  liquors  as  a  beverage  is,  therefore,  they 
think,  an  extreme  measure,  an  infringement  of  personal  lib- 
erty, and  unwarranted  by  the  necessity  of  the  case. 

But  there  is  another  large  class  of  persons  who,  while 
deploring  the  evils  of  intemperance,  and  not  averse  to  pro- 
hibition as  a  principle,  think  it  inexpedient  to  attempt  more 
than  can  certainly  and  effectually  be  accomplished.  Law, 
they  argue,  requires  enforcement,  and  for  this  there  is 
needed  a  local  public  sentiment  in  its  favor.  Hence  they 
advocate  local  option,  or  local  prohibition,  where  it  can  be 
obtained  and  enforced,  and  high  license  and  other  restrict- 
ive measures  where  it  cannot. 

The  whole  problem  is  a  difficult  one,  and  cannot  at 
present  be  satisfactorily  settled. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,   1883.  p.  661  (Art.  by  Prof.  A.  A.   Hopkins, 

chiefly  historical)  ;  1884,  pp.  411,  463,  774  ;  1885,  p.  499; 

1887.      See  Index. 

Cyc.  of  Temperance  and  Prohibition  (N.  Y.,  1891),  p.  97. 
Blair's  Temperance  Movement  (Bost,  1888),  Chap.  16-18,  25. 
Centennial  Temperance  Volume  :  A  Memorial  of  the  Internal. 

Temp.  Conf.  held  in  Philad.,  1876. 
100  Years  of  Temperance,  1785-1885  :    A  Memorial  Vol.  of  the 

Temp.  Conf.  held  in  Philad.,  Sept.,  1885. 
Collins's  Great  Living  Issue. 
The  Constitutional  Prohibitionist. 

Dorchester's  Liquor  Problem  in  all  Ages,  Period  3d,  Chap.  6, 7, 9. 
Fernald's  Economics  of  Prohibition. 
Mrs.  Foster's  Constitutional  Amendment  Manual. 
Harjjreaves's  Our  Wasted  Resources. 
Jutkins's  Handbook  of  Prohibition  (Chicago,  1884). 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  378  (Gives  arguments  for,  and 

some  points  against). 


POLITICS.  l8l 

Pitman's  Alcohol  and  the  State. 

The  Political  Prohibitionist  for  1888. 

The  Prohibitionist's  Text-Book  (N.  Y.,  1883). 

Wheeler's  Prohibition  :  the  Principle,  the  Policy,  and  the  Party. 

And.  R.,  1.  510;  9.  23. 

Chr.  Exam.,  18.  30. 

Contemp.,  51.  531. 

Forum,  3.  39  ;  7.  673. 

Hunt,  30.  703. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1880,  June  10,  p.  I  ;  Aug.  5,  p.  3;  Sept. 

16,  p.  i ;  Sept.  30,  p.  3.     1881,  Mar.  31,  p.  4.     1882,  Aug. 

24,  p.  4.     1883,  Apr.  12,  p.  2;  July  12,  p.  7.     1884,  Mar. 

13,  PP-  i»  5;  July  3,  P-  i?;  July  10,  p.  12.    1886,  Sept.  9, 

p.  2.     1887,  Mar.  31,  p.  16.     1889,  Points  for  Prohibition, 

from  Feb.  14  through  the  year.    1890,  June  5,  p.  i.    1891, 

Oct.  29,  p.  5. 
Meth.  Q.,  14.  244. 
New  Eng.,  10.  63;  48.  126. 
N.  Princ.,  4.  191 . 
No.  Am.,  134.  315;  135.   525  ;  138.  50;  139.  179;  143.  382; 

145.  291  ;  147.  121-149. 
Our  Day,  1.  M,  55;  3.335,355. 
Princ.,  N.  S.,  2.  384;  7.  83. 

NEGATIVE. 

Fawcett's  Essays  and  Lect.  on  Social  and  Polit.  Subjects  (Lond., 

1872),  Ess.  2,  pp.  44-49.     Same,  Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci., 

2.  384-385- 

Mill  on  Liberty,  3d  ed.  (Bost.,  1865),  Chap.  4,  pp.  172-173. 
NordhofFs  Politics  for  Young  Americans,  Chap.  31. 
Weeden's  Morality  of  Prohibitory  Liquor  Laws  (Bost.,  1875). 

Rev.  in  New  Eng.,  34.  663. 
And.  R.,  9.  18;  11.  6n. 
Chr.  Union,  1891,  Nov.  14,  p.  944. 
Fortn.,  16.  166. 
Forum,  2.  232,  401 ;  3.  152. 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1880,  May  6,  p.  5  ;  May  27.  p.  i ;  June  24, 

p.  4  ;  July  8,  p.  7  ;  July  15,  p.  2.     1885,  Sept.  17,  p.  17. 
Macmil.,  59.  338.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  112.  648. 
Nation,  9.  429;  12.  253;  16.  365;  36.  35,  168,  272;  42.  52; 

46.  70;  48.  133;  49.  470. 
New  Eng.,  51.  401.         N.  Princ.,  4.  31. 
No.  Am.,  139.  185;  141.  34;  144.  498. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  26.  787.         Unita.  R.,  31.  496. 


1 82     REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

UNION  OF  CANADA  WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

9 1 .  Would  the  political  union  of  Canada  with  the  United 

States  be  a  benefit  to  both  countries  ? 

92.  Is  the  commercial  union  of  Canada   and  the   United 

States  desirable? 

93.  Does  it  seem  likely  to  be  "  the  manifest  destiny "  of 

Canada    to   become   a   sovereign    and  independent 
Republic  ? 

The  future  must  determine  what  shall  be  the  destiny  of 
Canada  and  her  relation  to  the  United  States.  Meanwhile 
the  discussion  already  begun  is  likely  to  be  continued ;  and 
this  will  have  its  share  in  deciding  the  result.  It  will  de- 
velop public  sentiment,  which  will  be  an  important  factor  in 
the  production  of  the  result. 

There  are  things  which  favor,  and  things  which  do  not 
favor,  a  union ;  and  there  is  a  difference  of  judgment  as  to 
which  side  preponderates.  Even  some  who  advocate  a 
union  enumerate  the  obstacles  which  lie  in  the  way  to  it. 
These,  it  is  evident,  will  have  their  weight  as  reasons  against 
it ;  and  those  who  favor  it  must  show  that  there  are  reasons 
for  it  which  outweigh  them. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  both  sides  to  understand  well 
what  Canada  is,  in  respect  to  the  extent  of  its  territory,  its 
soil  and  climate,  the  possibilities  and  probabilities  of  its 
future  growth  in  population,  wealth,  and  prosperity,  and  the 
general  character  of  its  present  inhabitants,  together  with 
their  probable  influence  as  citizens  of  this  nation  should 
they  ever  become  such. 

Would  it  be  wise  for  this  nation  to  annex  a  country  pos- 
sessing a  territory  so  large  in  extent?  What  would  prob- 
ably be  the  effect  of  a  union  on  our  government  and  on 
politics? 

A  commercial  union  seems  more  immediately  feasible, 
and  might  prove  a  step  to  political  union. 

The  references  were  chosen  for  the  first  question ;  but 
some  of  the  articles  discuss  the  second,  and  some  mention 
will  also  be  found  of  the  third. 


POLITICS.  183 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  671. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  4.  765. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  826. 

Our  Day,  4.  146-149  (Ten  Reasons  against,  and  Twelve  Reasons 
for,  a  Political  Union,  by  Jos.  Cook). 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Goldwin  Smith:  I.  The  Political  Destiny  of  Canada  (1878). 

2.  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question  (1891). 

Cent.,  16.  236  (Relations  of  the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  Commer- 
cial Union.  Resources  of  Canada). 

Contemp.,  38.  805  (A  good  discussion  of  the  subject). 

Fortn.,  27.  431.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  89.  i.  Same,  Sup.  Pop.  Sci. 
Mo.,  1.  I. 

Forum,  6.  241  (Commercial  Union);  7.  361,  521,  645. 

New  Eng.,  53.  i  (Commercial  Union). 

I9th  Cent,  20.  14. 

No.  Am.,  131.  14;  136.  326;  139.  42;  142.  45-49;  148.  54 
("The  Greater  Half  of  the  Continent."  For  commercial 
union  ;  thinks  political  union  distant).  151.  212  (Commer- 
cial Union). 

NEGATIVE. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  396-399. 

Contemp.,  38.  396. 

Forum,  6.  451  (Morrill :  Some  reasons  in  favor  of  Union  at  the 

close  of  Article).    6.  634  (Obstacles  to  Union,  by  Lome). 

7.  i  (The  Manifest  Destiny  of  Canada.  Her  Independence). 
Mag.  Am.  Hist.,  16.  180;  21.  122. 
No.  Am.,  130.  338  ;  133.  153  ;  142.  36,  49  ;  148.  665. 
Presb.  R.,10.  229  (Romanism  as  a  Factor  in  Canadian  Politics). 
Quar.,  149.  1  ;  170.  536-539. 


THE  BALANCE   OF   POWER. 

94.  Is  the  so  called  Balance  of  Power  the  best  practicable 

arrangement  for  promoting  and  presenting  just  and 
harmonious  relations  between  the  European  powers  ? 

95.  Is  the  federation  of  European   nations  desirable  and 

practicable  ? 

The  study  of  the  Balance  of  Power,  considered   in   its 
nature,  history,  and  workings,  is  interesting  and  instructive, 


184    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

as  bringing  into  clear  view  the  mutual  relations  of  the  Eu- 
ropean nations.  It  implies  a  certain  understanding  by 
which  injustice  shall  be  prevented  and  peace  maintained. 
How  efficient  has  it  been  for  the  securing  of  these  impor- 
tant ends?  Has  it  been  sufficient? 

The  relations  of  the  European  governments  to  each  other 
are  plainly  not  the  best  conceivable.  Might  there  not  be 
more  union  and  harmony,  and  less  antagonism  of  interests  ? 
Each  nation,  in  its  attitude  toward  the  others,  seems  to  be 
actuated  by  a  selfishness  which  is  liable  to  transcend  the 
bounds  of  right  and  justice.  The  large  standing  armies 
which  it  is  thought  necessary  to  maintain  are  themselves  a 
menace  to  the  peace  of  Europe.  Should  there  not  be 
some  bond  of  union  which  would  make  the  interest  of  one 
nation  the  interest  of  all,  and  which  would  be  promotive 
of  the  general  welfare  of  the  whole  continent  ? 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  4.  387 ;  Qth  ed.,  3.  267. 

Gentz's  Fragments  upon  the  Balance  of  Power  in  Europe. 

Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  V.  3,  Pt.  2,  Ess.  7. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  187. 

Wheaton's  Internat.  Law  (2d  Eng.  ed.),  sec.  643. 

Woolsey's  Internat.  Law.,  sec.  43-44. 

Blackw.,  142.  124.  291,  583,  870  (Balance  of  Military  Power  in 

Europe)  ;  143.  280  (Its  Naval  Aspect). 
Brit.   QM  53.  516.     Same,  Eel.   M.,  76.  641  (The  Future  of 

Europe). 

Ed.  R.,  1.  345  ;  9.  253. 
Ev.  Sat.,  9.  578 ;  10.  314. 
Macmil.,  23.  436.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  76.  535. 
Nation,  44.  292  (The  Peace  of   Europe);    46.  113  (The  War 

Crisis  on  the  Continent). 
N.  Princ.,  6.  272. 
O.  and  N.,  3.  260. 
Princ.,  N.  S.,  2.  717. 
Quar.,  38.  172. 
Westm.,  61.  537  (Am.  ed.,  p.  285). 


POLITICS.  185 


THE   TURKISH    EMPIRE. 

96.    Would  the  subversion  of  the  Turkish  Empire  be  a  gain 
to  its  subjects,  and  to  Europe  as  a  whole  ? 

In  the  discussion  of  this  question,  Turkey  is  to  be 
considered  in  respect  to  its  territory;  its  inhabitants,  of 
diverse  races  and  different  religions;  its  government,  to- 
gether with  its  administration ;  its  history ;  and  its  present 
relation  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe.  The  Turks  do  not 
seem  properly  to  belong  in  Europe.  They  might  be  con- 
sidered as  intruders.  Neither  in  respect  to  their  religion 
nor  their  general  civilization  are  they  congruous  with  the 
other  European  nations.  They  do  not  share  the  general 
progress  and  prosperity.  The  Empire  is  in  a  decline, 
which,  unless  it  be  arrested,  portends  its  dissolution.  What 
would  be  the  effect  upon  its  own  subjects,  and  upon  Eu- 
rope as  a  whole,  of  its  dissolution  ?  What  changes  would 
it  bring  about  ? 

We  are  here  brought  to  what  is  called  the  Eastern 
Question,  an  understanding  of  which  is  necessary  in  order 
to  discuss  the  relation  of  Turkey  to  Europe.  Russia  and 
England  are  especially  interested  in  the  fate  of  Turkey. 
England  is  interested  because  Russia  is,  and  to  resist  her 
aggressions,  which,  if  successful,  might  imperil  her  Asiatic 
possessions. 

As  to  the  Turkish  government,  a  strong  case  can  be 
made  against  it ;  but  some  things  have  been  said  in  its 
favor.  Freeman,  in  his  book,  is  very  severe  on  the  Turks ; 
while  Baker  and  Hamlin,  from  a  somewhat  different  stand- 
point, give  a  more  favorable  view. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  55. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  640. 

Baker's  Turkey. 

Creasy's  Hist,  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  esp.  Chap.  25. 

Freeman's  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe. 

Hamlin's  Among  the  Turks,  esp.  Chap.  23  (Signs  of  Progress). 


1 86     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Hinsdale's  Schools  and  Studies,  Chap.  11  (The  Eastern  Ques- 
tion). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  950. 

Mackenzie's  I9th  Century,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  7. 

Newman's  Historical  Sketches,  V.  2  (The  Turks  in  their  Rela- 
tion to  Europe). 

Black w.,  76.  493. 

Brit.  Q.,  32.  480.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  51.  497. 

Chr.  Exam.,  64.  393;  65.  95,  401. 

Contemp.,  28.  191.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  130.  323. 

Contemp.,  28.  970 ;  37.  893 ;  40.  257. 

Eel.  M.,  70.  787. 

Ed.  R.,  91.  173  (Am.  ed.,  p.  92)  ;  99.  282  (Am.  ed.,  p.  141). 

For.  Q.,  2.  244. 

Fortn.,  6.  605  ;  29.  925.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  138.  3. 

Independent,  1884,  Feb.  7,  p.  3. 

New  Eng.,  37.  114. 

1 9th  Cent.,  3.  314. 

No.  Am.,  124.  106. 

No.  Brit.,  25.  281  (Am.  ed.,  p.  151). 

Presb.  Q.,4.  608;  5.  496. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  10.  133. 

Quar.,  142.  480  (Am.  ed.,  p.  253)  ;  143.  276,  573  ;  146.  256 
(Am.  ed.,  p.  136). 

St.  Paul's,  5.  418.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  74.  409. 

Westm.,  123.  303.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  165.  515.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
105.  247. 

RUSSIAN   NIHILISM. 

97.    Is  Russian  Nihilism,  considered  as  a  political  move- 
ment, justifiable  ? 

Nihilism,  as  used  in  this  question,  is  not  to  be  considered 
so  much  in  its  religious  or  socialistic  principles  as,  in  its 
general  character  and  opposition  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment, a  political  and  revolutionary  movement.  Neither, 
considered  in  this  aspect,  should  it  be  solely  judged  from 
the  extreme  views  and  measures  which  have  been  associated 
with  it. 

Yet  if  as  a  movement  it  must  be  regarded  as  extreme, 
it  must  then  be  considered  whether  in  this  respect  it  is  in 


POLITICS.  187 

any  degree  justifiable  as  a  reaction  from,  and  a  corrective 
of,  the  opposite  extreme  of  despotism  in  the  government. 
How  far  is  the  Russian  government  to  be  held  responsible 
for  Nihilism  ?  And  how  far,  in  its  efforts  to  maintain  itself, 
can  it  be  justified  in  the  measures  it  uses  to  suppress  it? 

The  government  and  the  Nihilists  must  both  be  con- 
sidered in  respect  to  their  opposite  political  principles,  and 
the  antagonism  which  these  make  inevitable.  What,  then, 
is  the  Russian  government,  both  in  form  and  administra- 
tion, as  a  despotism  ?  How  far  is  it  suited  to  the  present 
condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  Russia  as  a  whole?  To 
what  extent  are  they  suited  with  it?  And  to  what  extent 
are  they  prepared  for  a  free  government  ? 

Is  Nihilism  calculated,  in  its  principles  and  aims,  to 
bring  about  a  better  government  ?  Is  it  in  its  aims  only 
destructive?  Or  does  it  in  some  degree  represent  the 
true  principles  of  Republicanism?  How  far  may  it  serve 
a  good  purpose,  if  in  no  other  way,  by  developing  through 
agitation  a  public  sentiment  which  shall  demand,  and  ulti- 
mately secure,  constitutional  government?  Or  is  it  rather 
a  hindrance  than  a  help  in  the  promotion  of  a  result  so 
desirable  ? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  482-484. 

Brougham's  Polit.  Philos.,  V.  i,  Chap.  7. 

W.  E.  Curtis's  Land  of  the  Nihilist,  Chap.  21-22. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  21.  68-72. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  1026  ;  3.  656. 

Lansdell:  i.  Russian  Southern  Asia,  Chap.  42-43. 

2.  Through  Siberia. 

Noble's  Russian  Revolt.     Rev.  in  Dial  (Chicago),  6.  47-48. 
Rae's  Contemporary  Socialism,  Chap.  7. 
Stepniak:  i.  Underground  Russia.     Rev.  in  New.  Eng.,43.  718. 

2.  Russia  under  the  Tzars.    Rev.  in  Atlan.,  56.  269; 

Dial  (Chicago),  6.  45  ;  Westm.,  124.  135. 

3.  The  Russian  Storm  Cloud.    Rev.  in  Dial  (Chicago), 

7.  61. 

4.  The  Russian  Peasantry. 

5.  Career  of  a  Nihilist.     A  Novel. 
Turgenieff :   i .  Fathers  and  Sons. 

2.  Virgin  Soil.     Both  rev.  in  New  Eng.,  37.  553. 


1 88      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Wallace's  Russia,  Chap.  13,  i6ri8,  21,  23-24,  29-33. 

And.  R.,  2.  246. 

Brit.  Q-,  71.  394  (Am.  ed.,  p.  204). 

Contemp.,  35.  428,  571,  875;  88,913;  43.  275  (Lansdell:  De- 
scription of  a  Russian  Prison;  Ans.  to,  by  Krapotkin,  igth 
Cent.,  13.  928)  ;  44.  317  (Stepniak)  ;  45.  325  ;  47.  727. 

Cent.,  13.  50,  285,  397,  521,  755,  880 ;  14.  3,  163  (All  these  arti- 
cles in  the  Cent,  are  by  Kennan). 

Ed.  R.,  101.  500  (Am.  ed.,  p.  257). 

Fortn.,  10.  117. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1879,  May  i,  p.  14;  1880,  Jan.  22,  p.  3  ; 
1881,  Mar.  24,  p.  i ;  1889,  May  23,  p.  I. 

Internal.  R.,  10.  349,  411. 

Macmil.,  45.  405.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  153.  106. 

Nation,  30.  189;  33.  119. 

I9th  Cent,  7.  i.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  94.  257. 

1 9th  Cent,  13.  27  (Krapotkin:  Russian  Prisons). 

igth  Cent,  14.  964  (Krapotkin:  Outcast  Russia).  Same,  Liv. 
Age,  160.  184. 

1 9th  Cent.,  17.  883. 

No.  Am.,  128.  174  (The  Empire  of  the  Discontented,  by  a 
Russian  Nihilist);  129.  23  (By  a  Russian  Nihilist);  130. 
523  (Stoughton :  Favorable  to  the  Russian  Government). 

Quar.,  113.  60  (Am.  ed.,  p.  32). 

Westm.,  132.  204. 


ENGLISH    ARISTOCRACY. 

98.   Has  the  aristocracy  of  England  been,  on  the  whole,  a 
benefit  to  that  country  ? 

In  discussing  this  question  it  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  nature  of  aristocracy  in  general,  and  that  of 
England  in  particular.  In  general,  an  aristocracy  denotes 
a  class  of  men  with  some  characteristic  of  superiority,  such 
as  birth,  rank,  or  wealth. 

The  English  aristocracy  is  an  hereditary  and  a  landed 
aristocracy.  Its  influence  is  to  be  considered  especially  in 
its  social  and  political  aspects.  It  has  been  a  necessary 
and  important  part  of  English  society  and  government.  It 
is  to  be  considered  whether  its  monopoly  of  land  is  justifia- 


POLITICS.  189 

ble,  and  whether  its  supremacy  and  its  general  and  political 
influence  have,  on  the  whole,  resulted  in  the  general  good. 
It  should  be  contrasted  with  the  increasing  democratic  ten- 
dency which  is  diminishing  its  influence. 

Are  not  the  distinctions  which  constitute  an  aristocracy 
chiefly  factitious?  And  should  not  social  and  political  dis- 
tinctions be  based  rather  on  character  and  ability?  On 
the  other  hand,  has  not  the  English  aristocracy  developed 
and  displayed  exceptional  character  and  ability? 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of   the  State,  trans.   (Ox.,  1885),  Bk.  2, 

Chap.  ii. 

Emerson's  Eng.  Traits,  Chap.  1 1. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8.  224  (The  "  Upper  Ten  Thousand  "). 
Escott's  England,  Chap.  3,  18,  23. 
Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life,  Pt.  8,  Letter  i. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1    1 18. 
Laugel's  England,  Political  and  Social,  Chap.  3. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (N.  Y.,  1878),  V.   i, 

Chap.  2,  sec.  i,  pp.  184-200.     Same,  No.  Am.,  126.  62. 
May's  Democracy  in  Europe,  2.  374-376. 
Taine's  Notes  on  Eng.,  Chap.  12. 
White's  Eng.  Without  and  Within,  Chap.   13.     Same,  Allan., 

44.  370. 

Black w.,  35.  68;  54.  51. 
Ed.  R.,  61.  64. 
Fraser,  38.  516. 
Internal.  R.,  14.  no. 
Nat.  R.,  6.  360. 
No.  Am.,  135.  299. 
Quar.,  53.  540;  72.  165  (Am.  ed.,  p.  88). 


THE   ENGLISH    HOUSE   OF   LORDS. 

99.  Should  the  English  House  of  Lords  be  abolished '? 

100.  Should  the  English  House  of  Lords  be  reformed? 

That  the  question  of  the  abolition,  or  even  of  the  re- 
form, of  the  House  of  Lords  should  be  started  and  warmly 
discussed,  is  a  matter  of  no  small  significance.  It  is  one 


I9O      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

of  the  many  signs  of  the  growing  prevalence  of  democratic 
sentiments  in  England. 

It  is  well  understood  that  the  House  of  Commons  is  the 
ruling  power  of  the  English  government ;  while  the  House 
of  Lords  is  but  secondary,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  popular  legislation.  It  is  of  a  piece  with  royalty, 
and  has  suffered  a  like  decline.  How  long  shall  this,  to- 
gether with  royalty,  be  left  to  help  constitute  the  outward 
form  of  a  government  which  in  spirit,  power,  and  operation 
is  essentially  democratic? 

The  question  of  its  abolition  implies  the  question  of  two 
chambers.  Should  there  be  but  a  single  chamber?  This 
would  be  contrary  to  the  theory  of  the  English  government. 
But  if  two,  what  should  be  the  substitute  for  the  present 
second  chamber?  Might  the  House  of  Lords  be  made  the 
basis  for  a  new  chamber?  Or  might  it  be  so  reformed  as 
to  be  made  more  equal,  and  to  act  more  in  harmony,  with 
the  House  of  Commons  ? 

Good  things  may  be  said  of  the  House  of  Lords  as  it  is, 
as  a  permanent,  conservative  body,  representing  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  nation,  and  by  no  means  alien  in  sympathy 
from  the  people.  Nor  is  it  utterly  lacking  in  utility  as  a 
branch  of  the  government. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  113. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  Parliament,  18.  302  ;  Peerage,  p.  458. 
Bagehot's  English  Constitution,  No.  4.     Same,  Fortn.,  3.  657. 
Escott's  England,  Chap.  23. 

Fawcett's  Essays  and  Lectures,  No.  12.    Same,  Fortn.,  16.  491. 
Gneist's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const.,  trans.,  V.  2,  Chap.  51. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  472. 

Langmead's  Kng.  Constitutional  Hist.,  3d  ed.,  Chap.  17,  Pt.  2. 
May's  Constitutional  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  I,  Chap.  5. 
Mill's  Representative  Government,  Chap.  13. 
Smith's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Institutions,  Chap.  5,  II. 
IHackw.,  30.  17;    40.  595. 
Brit.  Q.,  79.  322  ;  80.  339. 
Contemp.,  38.  942;  46.  313,  465. 
Ed.  R..  60.  24. 

Fortn.,  12.  270;  17.  I  ;  19.  89,  231  ;  37.  620  ;  38.  358  ;  39.  233; 
46.  91. 


POLITICS.  IQI 

Fraser,  95.  1 73.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  132.  797. 

Liv.  Age,  178.  39. 

Nation,  22.  274;  35.  238. 

Nat.  R.,  11.  no. 

New  Eng.,  44.  153. 

I9th  Cent,  5.  612;  10.  56;  15.  200,  217;  16.  169,  460,  731; 

17.  237;  21.  119;  23.  620,  734. 
No.  Am.,  131.  44;  139.  547. 
Quar.,  167.  217. 
Westm.,  23.  509  ;  24.  47 ;  110.  I ;  130.  455 ;  131.  227. 

ENGLISH   RULE   IN   INDIA. 

101.  Is  English  Rule  in  India,  considered  as  to  its  charac- 

ter and  results,  capable  of  vindication  ? 

102.  Has  English  Rule  been  a  benefit  to  India  ? 

The  character  and  results  of  English  rule  in  India  make 
an  interesting  subject  for  study  and  for  discussion.  This 
rule  should  of  course  be  understood  to  include  the  period 
during  which  the  East  India  Company  had  control. 

In  its  character  it  probably  cannot  be  said  to  be  either 
wholly  good  or  wholly  evil.  The  question  then  will  be, 
Which  preponderates?  Has  it  been,  on  the  whole,  good 
or  evil?  Has  it  been  better  or  worse  for  India  that  she  has 
been  ruled  by  England?  The  history  of  England's  rule, 
and  the  present  as  contrasted  with  the  past  condition  of 
India,  furnish  the  facts  from  which  the  answers  to  these 
question#can  be  drawn. 

We  have  here  the  example  of  a  nation,  representing  the 
most  advanced  type  of  modern  civilization,  establishing  her 
institutions,  courts,  schools,  commerce,  railroads,  in  a  repre- 
sentative Asiatic  country.  Will  the  European  civilization 
transform  the  Asiatic  civilization  ?  And,  save  in  the  degree 
that  it  does,  how  is  it  a  benefit  to  the  people  ?  How  far 
will  this  Asiatic  people  receive  and  be  benefited  by  the 
English  civilization?  How  far  has  the  English  rule  in 
India  been  selfish,  mercenary,  and  oppressive?  and  how 
far  beneficent  and  elevating,  and  promotive  of  liberty  and 
order  ? 


192      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.);  V.  3,  Chap.  51,  52. 
Burke's  Works,  Bost.,  1871,  V.  8,  and  Harpers  ed.,  V.  3,  Rep. 

of  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 

Affairs  of  India. 

Butler's  Land  of  the  Veda,  Chap.  6-8. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  12.  768-776,  800. 
Field's  From  Egypt  to  Japan,  Chap.  18. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  East  India  Co.,  2.  i  ;    Const,  and 

Gov.  of  India,  2.  21-28. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  Life  of  Lord  Clive,  4.  194.     Same,  Ed.  R., 

70.  295  (Am.  ed.,  p.  157). 
Mackenzie's  I9th  Cent.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  u. 
Mill's  Hist,  of  British  India,  3  vols. 
E.  D.  G.  Prime's  Around  the  World,  Chap.  15. 
Read's  India  and  its  People,  Chap.  3-5. 
Ward's  India  and  the  Hindoos,  Chap.  3,  pp.  72-82,  Chap.  5. 
Whitney's  Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies,  2.  i. 
Atlan.,  1.  85. 

Brit.  Q.,  65.  391  (Am.  ed.,  p.  189)  ;  82.  20. 
Chr.  Exam.,  48.  i. 
Chr.  R.,  25.  52. 
Contemp.,  31.  494-,  32.  29,  417;  39,464;  43.  372;  49.  704; 

50.  60  ;  51.  8;  53.  795  ;  54.  312  ;  57.  78. 
Cornh.,  20.  68. 
Ed.  R.,  73.  425  (Am.  ed.,  p.  227)  ;  79.  476  (Am.  ed.,  p.  248); 

119.  95  (Am.  ed.,  p.  49) ;  156.  60  (Am.  ed.,  p.  31)  ;  159.  i. 
Fortn.,  2.  31  ;  6.  257. 
For.  QM  6.  148 ;  13.  406. 
Fraser,  8.  593  ;  46.  713. 
Internal.  R.,  12.  296-298. 
Independent,  1891,  Dec.  24,  p.  4. 

Nation,  29.  155,  204;  34.  407;  35.  92;  37.  181  ;  44.^56. 
Nat.  R.,  6.  i.         New  Eng.,  16.  100. 

I9th  Cent,  4.  585,  1083;  5.  443;  8.  157;  14.  i,  329;  22.  133. 
No.  Am.,  88.  289 ;  142.  356  (Amrita  Lai  Roy  :  a  strong  protest 

against  English  rule,  as  oppressive  and  evil  in  its  results)  ; 

130.  527-528  (Exorbitant  Taxation  of  the  Natives). 
No.  Brit.,  49.  313  (Railroads) ;  50.  226  (Public  Works). 
Quar.,  92.  46  (Am.  ed.,  p.  24);  104.  224  (Am.  ed.,  p.  123); 

125.  48  ;  145.  418  (Am.  ed.,  p.  221). 
Westm.,  4.  261 ;  11.  326;  57.  358  (Am.  ed.,  p.  191)  ;  69.  180 

(Am.  ed.,  p.  99);  78.  112  (Am.  ed.,  p.  62);  79.  115  (Am. 

ed.,  p.  62)  ;  90.  i  ;   103.  346  (Am.  ed.,  p.  165)  ;  121.  63  ; 

128.  998  ;  129.  342. 


POLITICS.  193 

ENGLISH   RULE   IN    IRELAND. 

103.   Is  Ireland's  want  of  prosperity  to  be  attributed  chiefly 
to  English  misrule  ? 

The  general  question  of  the  causes  which  contribute  to 
the  prosperity  of  a  country  should  be  considered,  and  like- 
wise the  causes  which  may  hinder  or  prevent  its  prosperity. 
How  does  government  affect  the  prosperity  of  a  country  in 
proportion  to  other  causes,  natural  and  moral?  How 
much  do  the  character,  condition,  and  situation  of  the 
people  operate  as  a  factor  in  determining  what  their  gov- 
ernment shall  be?  The  Irish,  relatively  weak  as  a  nation, 
occupy  a  country  situated  near  one  of  the  most  powerful 
nations  of  modern  times,  and  fitted  by  its  character  for 
supremacy.  The  result  is  logical  and  inevitable,  the  strong 
rules  the  weak.  But  how?  That  is  the  question  to  be 
determined.  Has  her  rule,  as  a  whole,  been  just  and  be- 
neficent, or  tyrannous  and  oppressive? 

It  is  a  question  of  fact  and  of  the  interpretation  of 
facts,  a  question  of  history.  What  is  the  true  history  of 
the  English  rule  of  Ireland?  And  what  are  the  legitimate 
inferences  to  be  drawn  from  it?  How  much  has  it  helped, 
and  how  much  hindered,  the  natural  development  of  the 
country  and  of  the  people?  It  would  not  be  fair  to  charge 
on  England  all  the  blame  for  the  present  condition  of 
Ireland  *  Is  she  chiefly  to  blame?  How  much  is  Ireland 
herself  to  blame  ?  How  much  is  due  to  the  character  of 
the  people,  to  their  religion,  to  the  want  of  diversification 
in  their  industries?  How  much  to  the  system  of  land- 
holding  and  renting,  which  must  be  charged  to  England? 

England's  misrule  of  Ireland,  in  many  respects,  is  unde- 
niable. How  great,  relatively,  have  been  its  character  and 
influence  for  evil  ? 

Duffy's  Young  Ireland. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  13.  258-272. 

Froude's  English  in  Ireland  in  the   i8th   Century.      Rev.  in 
Fortn.,  22.  171  ;   Quar.,  134.  169  (Am.  ed.,  p.  90}. 

13 


194      REt-EREXCES  tOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  598. 

Hon.  Emily  Lawless's  Story  of  Ireland. 

McGee's  Pop.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  Bk.  9-12. 

Two  Centuries  of  Irish  History,  1691-1870. 

Walpole's  Short  Hist,  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland. 

Blackw.,  21.  61 ;  22.  237  :  40.  495,  812;  56.  701  ;  140.  419. 

Brit.  Q.,  1.  582.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  5.  347. 

Brit.  Q.,  57.  481  (Am.  ed.,  p.  258). 

Cent.,  4.  249  (James  Bryce  :   a  fair  article,  giving  both  sides). 

Contemp.,  37.  300;  39.  129;  4O.  93;  54.  769. 

Ed.  R.,  41.  356;  119.  279  (Am.  ed.,  p.  141);  122.  518  (Am. 

ed.,  p.  263)  ;  137.  122  (Am.  ed.,  p.  63);  139.  468  (Am. 

ed.,  p.  240)  ;  142.  307  (Am.  ed.,  p.  157) ;  153.  274  (Am.  ed., 

p.  140. 

Fortn.,  5.  758. 
Forum,  3.  559;  4.  652. 

Internat.  R.,  2.  117;  10.  72,  243;  11.  185;  12.  570. 
Liv.  Age,  96.  771  (Mill). 
Nation,  11.  240;  16.  355;  19.  59,  75;  46.  423  (Catholicism  in 

Ireland  :  a  favorable  view). 
New  Eng.,  4O.  214. 
I9th  Cent.,  8.  341,  861  ;  18.  707. 
1 9th  Cent.,  19.  620.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  169.  293. 
I9th  Cent,  25.  567;  26.  I  (Gladstone:  Plain  Speaking  on  the 

Irish  Union);  26.  257  (Lord  Brabourne:  Reply  to  Gladstone). 
No.  Am..  86.  120  (Ireland  Past  and  Present.    The  Cruel  Wrongs 

inflicted  on  her  by  England);  130.  131  (Froude  :  Roman- 
ism and  the  Irish  Race);  142.  104. 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  4.  82-87. 
Quar.,  67.  1 1 7. 
Westm.,  128.  793,  1005  (Union  of  Ireland  with  Great  Aritain). 


HOME    RULE   FOR    IRELAND. 

104.    Ought  England  to  concede  the  Irish  demand  for 
Home  Rule? 

This  question  logically  follows  the  preceding ;  hence  the 
references  under  that  have  a  bearing  on  this.  That  pre- 
pares the  way  for  this,  by  showing  what  has  been  and  is 
the  nature  of  the  relation  between  England  and  Ireland. 
This  has  respect  to  what  ought  to  be  the  relation.  Ought 


POLITICS.  19$ 

there  to  be  any  relation  save  that  between  independent 
states?  If  a  closer  union  would  be  better  for  both,  what 
ought  to  be  its  nature  ?  Can  there  be  a  union,  under  one 
government,  which  shall  be  consistent  with  the  legislative 
and  administrative  independence  of  Ireland? 

Two  ideas,  to  many  minds,  seem  here  to  come  in  con- 
flict. One  is  the  Irish  idea,  home  rule,  or  self-government. 
This,  considered  in  itself  and  in  a  general  way,  seems  just 
and  right.  But  to  this  a  considerable  party  of  the  English 
oppose  the  idea  or  existing  fact  of  union,  of  which  they 
are  sure  home  rule  would  be  destructive.  The  practical 
difficulty  consists  in  formulating  a  scheme  which  shall  com- 
bine with  home  rule  a  necessary  union  of  the  two  countries. 

But  first  of  all  there  must  be  a  union  of  Ireland  herself. 
For  her  people  are  divided  into  two  opposing  religious 
parties,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  the  latter  of  which  ear- 
nestly protests  against  coming  under  the  government  of  the 
former.  Is  the  Catholic  majority  fitted  to  rule?  Would 
Ireland  be  better  off  thus  self-governed  ? 

Thus,  however  simple  home  rule  may  seem  as  an  idea, 
practically  it  is  hindered  by  difficulties.  Is  it  a  conquer- 
ing idea?  Does  the  progress  of  events  foreshadow  its 
triumph  ? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

O'Connor,  The  Parnell  Movement. 

And.  I4fc.  525. 

Conten^  39.  300;  42.  87;   49.  132,  153  (Freeman:   a  good 

article);  49.  322,  609,  874;  50.  i,  153,  168;   51.  84;  53- 

321  (Gladstone):  55.  462;  61  472. 
Fortn.,  32.  224:  52.  293  (Freeman :  Parallels  to  Home  Rule  in 

Ireland). 

Nation,  42.  381,  464;  43.  7;  44.  59. 
N.  Princ.,  3.  48  (Bryce  :  a  good  view  of  the  situation). 
I9th  Cent,  12.  175.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  99.  536. 
I9th  Cent,  18.  238. 

1 9th  Cent.,  19.  424.    Same,  Liv.  Age,  169.  211. 
I9th  Cent,  19.  476,  620,  793;    21.  19,  301  (Morley :    Ans.  to 

Dicey);  21.  165  (Gladstone) ;  25.  753  (Frederick  Harrison: 

Are  we  making  way  ?). 


196       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Westm.,  128.  i,  525;  129.  77;  131.  347  (The  Am.  Struggle  of 
the  Last  Century  and  the  Irish  Struggle  of  To-day);  132. 
138  (A  French  view  of  the  Irish  Question). 

NEGATIVE. 

Blackw.,  146.  286-292. 

Contemp.,  42.  66;  49.  457;  50.  128;  61.  314. 

Ed.  R.,  153.  274  (Am.  ed.,  p.  140);  163.  562;  164.  575. 

Fortn.,  17.  16. 

Forum,  3.  559;  8.  I. 

Fraser,  84.  i  ;  85.  206,  525. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1889.  Sept.  5,  p.  i. 

Nation,  27.  313;  42.  444,  463  ;  43.  7. 

I9th  Cent.,  12.  i;  14.  733;  19.  329,  636;  21.  397  (Lord  Bra- 
bourne  :  Ans.  to  Gladstone). 

National,  7.  83.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  106.  577.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
169.  83. 

Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  4.  66  (H.  O.  Arnold- Forster,  Irish  Secession.  A 
vigorous  article). 

Quar.,  162.  544. 

Unita.  R.,  29.  147. 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  197 


IV.     POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 

"POLITICAL  Economy  is  public  or  social  econo- 
JL  my.  Private  or  domestic  economy  is  economy 
of  the  individual  or  of  the  family ;  public  economy 
is  the  economy  of  the  State  or  nation,  or  of  soci- 
ety. Between  these  two  there  is  mutual  dependence 
and  aid. 

The  science  of  Political  Economy  treats  of  the  laws 
which  regulate  the  production,  distribution,  and  con- 
sumption of  wealth  in  all  its  forms.  Since  it  treats 
of  man  in  his  social  relations,  it  is  a  branch  of  social 
science;  and  though  it  pertains  first  and  chiefly  to 
man's  physical  wellbeing,  it  has  a  distinct  and  posi- 
tive moral  element.  If  the  principles  of  Political 
Economy  are  natural,  they  are  also  moral. 

The  general  subject  has  many  branches,  such  as 
exchange,  money,  interest,  rent,  labor,  capital,  wages, 
monopoly,  supply  and  demand,  international  trade, 
etc.  It  is  thus  clear  that  the  subject  pertains  to  the 
multifjjkms  interests  of  the  daily  life  of  all  men,  and 
has  a  wral  relation  to  their  welfare.  For  the  public 
or  national  wealth,  the  aggregate  of  all  individual 
wealth,  has  respect,  not  to  mere  luxuries  or  super- 
fluities alone,  but  most  of  all  to  the  necessaries  of 
life ;  hence  it  concerns  most  nearly  the  largest 
class,  the  laboring  class.  Yet  the  capitalist  has  a 
much  larger  part,  and  a  controlling  influence,  in  eco- 
nomic affairs,  which  imply  a  proportionally  larger 
responsibility. 

As  civilization  advances,  society  becomes  more 
complex.  The  difference  of  individual  talent  and  of 


*98      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

opportunity  leads  inevitably  to  inequality;  and  this 
natural  and  necessary  inequality  is  greatly  increased 
and  aggravated  by  a  prevailing  selfishness.  Self- 
ishness is  the  fruitful  source  of  human  ills.  It  is 
the  parent  of  greed,  of  injustice,  of  oppression,  and 
of  cruelty. 

The  true  solution  of  all  social  problems  is  universal 
love.  This  alone  can  transform  society  by  recon- 
ciling conflicting  interests,  and  making  men  one. 
The  sure  progress  toward  this  consummation  is  the 
hope  of  mankind. 


PROTECTION  AND  FREE  TRADE. 

1 05 .  Which  is  the  true  economic  policy  for  nations.  Pro- 

tection or  Free  Trade  ? 

1 06.  Is  Protection  or  Free  Trade  the  wiser  policy  for  the    I 

L  nited  States  ? 

107.  Should  a  tariff  be  levied  exclusively  for  reivnue  ? 

1 08 .  Does  Protection  protect  9 

Protection  as  applied  to  international  trade  is  a  national 
politico-economic  policy ;  Free  Trade  is  a  universal  eco- 
nomic principle.     But  the  latter,  it  is  evident,  may  also  be 
a  national  policy,  that  is,  an  economic  policy  wMdi  shall  W 
be  applicable  alike  to  all  nations.  ^J 

Freedom  of  trade  is  its  natural  state ;  while  a  protective 
tariff  is  imposed  by  any  government  as  a  restriction  on 
foreign  trade  for  an  assumed  national  benefit.  National 
protection  is  legitimate  and  necessary ;  but  it  is  a  question 
whether  the  restriction  of  trade,  resulting  in  the  practical 
or  partial  prohibition  of  foreign  trade,  is  necessary  to  or 
gives  either  national  protection  or  national  prosperity. 

Protection,  it  must  be  observed,  is  limited  to  interna- 
tional trade,  while  the  internal  trade  of  the  nation  is  left 
quite  free.  It  allows,  therefore,  the  benefit  of  a  national, 
but  denies  the  benefit  of  an  international  Free  Trade.  On 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  199 

the  contrary,  the  advocates  of  Free  Trade  as  a  universal 
principle  confidently  affirm  that  freedom  is  implied  in  the 
very  nature  of  trade ;  and  hence  that  a  restriction  of  its 
freedom,  as  a  restriction  of  trade  itself,  is  an  inevitable 
curtailment  of  |ts  benefits.  It  should  be  said  that  Protec- 
tion is  not  inconsistent  with  the  encouragement  of  the  for- 
eign trade  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  deemed  a  benefit  to  the 
country. 

The  aim  of  the  policy  of  Protection  is  to  foster  and  build 
up  the  home  trade  bv  the  restriction  of  the  foreign  trade. 
This  implies  that  theTforeign  trade  may  be,  in  some  re- 
spects, opposed  to  the  home  trade,  and  therefore  injurious ; 
whereas  it  is  maintaine<i;\>n  the  other  side,  that  it  is  pro- 
motive  of  the  home  tra^e,  and  a  benefit,  and  therefore  that 
the  more  there  is  of  It  the  better  it  is  for  the  nation.  Here, 
then,  is  found  one  of  the  chief  points  of  difference  between 
the  contending  parties.  The  nature  and  influence  of  com- 
petition come  here  into  the  contention.  Is  competition 
with  foreign  trade  in  any  case  an  evil,  against  which  it  may 
be  necessary  to  guard  ? 

The  impost  on  certain  foreign  articles  is  meant  for  the 
protection  of  home  producers  against  ruinous  foreign  com- 
petition. But  this,  it  is  charged,  is  class  legislation,  or 
favoring  a  few  at  the  expense  of  the  many.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  urged  that  the  encouraging  of  a  diversity  of  in- 
dustries is  in  the  interest  of  the  many,  and  conducive  to 
general  prosperity. 

On  the  one  side,  it  is  alleged  that  a  tariff  is  always 
necessarily  a  tax  on  the  consumer,  since  it  raises  prices. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  asserted  that  facts  show  that  under  a 
protective  tariff,  by  reason  of  its  encouragement  of  home 
industries,  prices  are  reduced  by  home  competition.  It  is 
said  that  Free  Trade  would  cheapen  labor  by  bringing  it 
into  competition  with  the  cheap  labor  of  other  countries. 
To  this  it  is  answered,  that  the  rate  of  wages  is  dependent 
on  other  conditions ;  and  that  even  lower  wages  would  not 
be  an  evil,  if,  by  a  proportionate  cheapening  of  commod- 
ities, their  purchasing  power  is  not  diminished. 


200      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  standpoint  of  the  two  parties  is 
different,  that  of  the  one  being  a  general  principle,  that  of 
the  other  a  national  policy.  Hence  writers  on  Political 
Economy  are  almost  unanimous  in  their  advocacy  of  Free 
Trade,  while  nearly  all  governments  retain  some  form  or 
degree  of  Protection.  n 

England  is  the  great  Free  Trade  nation,*Cnd  many  of  the 
references  relate  to  the  discussion  and  adoption  of  Free 
Trade  as  a  national  policy  in  that  country.  There  are  also 
many  which  comprise  the  history  and  discussion  of  tariff 
legislation  in  the  United  States. 


Bigelow's  Tariff  Question. 
Elaine's  Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  V.  I,  Chap.  9. 
Bolles's  Financial  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  3-7 
(Tariff   Legislation);    V.  3,  Bk.  2,   Chap.  7  (Taxation   of 
Imports). 
Bowen  :    i.    Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,   2d  ed.  (Bost.,   1859), 

Chap.  24. 

2.  Am.  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  i88;X  Chap.  20. 
Bulletin  of  the  Wool  Manufacturers,  7  291  (Bigelow :  Tariff 
Policy  of  England  and  of  the  U.  S  contrasted) ;  9.  261 ;  10. 
in,  227,  234;  13.  129,  185,  311;  14.  113,  190,  197,  222; 
15.  31,  63,  115,  203,  256;  16.  2,  in,  138,  309,  329,  338; 
17.  12,  272. 

Byles's  Sophisms  of  Free  Trade. 

Carey:  I.    Harmony  of  Interests.     See  Index.     (Found  in  Mis- 
cellaneous Works.) 

2.  Principles  of  Social  Science.    (See  Index,  under  Pro- 
tection and  Free  Trade.) 
Clay:  i.  Speeches  (N.  Y.,  1843),  1-  405-440;  2.  5. 

2.  Sargent's  Life  of  Clay,  p.  440. 
Denslow's  Principles  of  Economic  Philos.,  Chap.  12-16.     Rev. 

in  Nation,  47.  285. 
Dixwell's  Premises  of  Free  Trade  examined,  and  Review  of 

sundry  Free  Trade  Arguments. 
Elder's  Questions  of  the  Day,  Chap.  13-17. 
Garfield's  Works,  1.  205.  520;  2.  551,  637. 
Greeley  :  i.  Essays  in  Polit.  Econ. 

2.  Recollections  of  a  Busy  Life,  p.  528. 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  2OI 

Alex.  Hamilton's  Works  (N.  Y.,  1885),  3.  294  (Industry  and 

Commerce:  Manufactures). 
John  L.  Hayes:  i.  The  Protective  Question  abroad.     Same, 

Bulletin    of    the    Wool    Manufacturers, 

2.  158. 

2.  The  Protective  Question  at  Home.     Same, 

Bulletin    of    the    Wool    Manufacturers, 
2.  349- 

3.  Protection  a  Boon  to  Consumers. 
Hoyt's  Protection  versus  Free  Trade. 

Kelley's  Speeches  on  Industrial  and  Financial  Questions. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  423  (Protection  in  the  U.  S.). 
Long's  Republican  Party  (1888),  p.  241. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  2.  102-108. 
Mason's  Short  Tariff  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  Pt.  i,  1783-89. 
Report  of  the  Tariff  Commission:  House  Miscellanies,  47th  Cong. 

2d.  Sess.,  1882-83,  V.  2,  3. 
Roberts's  Government  Revenue. 
Roscher's  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.,  V.  2,  App.  3  (Thinks  Protection 

should  be  temporary). 
Seaman's  Progress  of  Nations,  V.  i.     See  Index,  Free  Trade 

and  Protection. 

Sherman's  Speeches  and  Reports  on  Finance,  pp.  i,  121. 
Stebbins's  Am.  Protectionist's  Manual. 
Stewart's  Speeches  on  the  Tariff,  etc. 
Sir  Edward  Sullivan's  Protection  to  Native  Industry. 
Robt.  E.  Thompson's  Polit.   Econ.      See    Index,  Free  Trade 

and  Protection. 

R.  W.  Thompson's  Hist,  of  Protective  Tariff  Laws. 
Webster's  Works,  5.  161. 

Young's  Am.  Statesman.     See  Index  under  Tariff. 
Atlantic,  36.  298  (Jos.  Wharton  :  a  good  art.). 
Blackw.,  17.  551  ;  19.  474;  21.  I  ;  54.  243,  406,  637;   55.  259, 

385  ;  66.  756;  67.  94,  222,  447  ;  69.  564,  748,  70.  106,  488, 

629;  138.  239,  813  ,  141.  491. 
Contemp.,  29.  310  ;  38.  55. 
Fortn.,  19.  447.     Same,  Bulletin  of  the  Wool  Manufacturers, 

4.  173. 

Forum,  4.  582  (Kelley);  8.  136  (Protection  and  the  Farmers). 
Fraser,  5.  577;  6.  593;  7.  106  ;  8.  103,  222,  604;  9.  356. 
Hunt,  1.  61,  405;   2.  127;   4.  425;   5.  166 ;  6.  220;   7.  343; 

8.  64,  257,  343,  512;   9.  58,  523. 
Internat.  R.,  12.  285  (Kelley). 
N.  Princ.,  3.  329. 

*  » 


2O2      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Niles's  Reg.,  17.  87 ;  19.  331  ;  20.  306,  354;  21.  121  ;  22.  2,  292 ; 

23.  40,  118  ;  24.  99  ;    28.  186;    29.  49,  289  ;    34.  97,  164; 

35.  24,  50 ;    37.  207,  219 ;  38.  213,  342  ;    39.  50,  313,  396; 

4O.  108,  114;  41.  234;  42.  6l,  105,  182. 
I9th  Cent.,  10.   161,  430,  588  ;  19.  380,  590  (Lord   Penzance: 

The   Free   Trade    Idolatry);   Ans.  19.   807,  by  Medley ; 

20.  322  (Penzance,  ans.  to  Medley)  ;  21.  273  (Medley,  ans. 

to  Penzance). 
No.  Am.,  30.  460;  32.  127;   35.  265   (Memorial  of  the  N.Y. 

Conv.)  ;    72.  396;    73.  90;   74.   216;    79.502;    95.463; 

105.  280  ;   135.  403 ;  136.  507  ;  139.  372-403  ;   142   526  ; 

147.  460;  150.  27  (LHaine,  ans.  to  Gladstone);  150.  281, 

740 ;  151.  47- 
Our  Day,  1.  265. 
Quar.,  86.  148  (Am.  ed.,  p.  80). 


FREE  TRADE. 

Allen,  The  Tariff  and  its  Evils,  or  Protection  which  does  not 

Protect. 

E.  B.  Andrews's  Institutes  of  Economics,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2. 
Bastiat's  Sophisms  of  Protection. 
Benton's  Thirty  Years  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,  V.  i,  Chap.  13,  34. 

44.  69  (Gives  extracts  from  speeches  on  both  sides). 
Blanqui's  Hist,  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Ikmham's  Industrial  Liberty,  Chap.  8. 
Brace:  I.  Gesta  Christi,  Chap.  33,  pp.  421-423. 

2.  Free  Trade  as  promoting  Peace  and  Good  Will  among 

Men. 

Bright:  I.  Speeches,  Pop.  ed.,  p.  415. 
2.  Public  Addresses,  p.  367. 
Butts's  Protection  and  Free  Trade. 
Cairnes's  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  4. 
Calhoun's  Works,  4.  171. 
Cobden's  Speeches. 
Cox's  Free  Land  and  Free  Trade. 
Donnell's  True  Issue. 
Ely's  Problems  of  To-day.  Ch?.p.  7-13,  31. 
Encyc.  Brit,  art.  Free  Trade,  9.  752. 
Fawcett:  I.  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  7. 
2.  Free  Trade  and  Protection. 
Henry  George's  Free  Trade  or  Protection. 
Hawley's  Essays  on  Free  Trade. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 


203 


Lalor's  Cyc.  of   Polit.   Sci.,  2.  289,  Free  Trade.     3.  413-423, 

Protection.     3.  441-443,  Note.     3.  856,  Tariffs  in  the  U.  S. 
Laveleye's  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  6. 
Levi's    Hist,  of  Brit.   Commerce,   Pt.  3,   Chap.  8,    The  Corn 

Laws.      Same,    Rand's    Selections,   illustrating   Economic 

Hist.,  Chap.  9. 

McCulloch's  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  5. 
H.  Martineau's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  4. 
Mill  :   i.  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  10,  sec.  I. 

2.  Ibid.,  Laughlin's  ed.,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  6. 
Molesworth's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1830-74;  V.  2,  Chap.  4.     See  also 

Index:  Free  Trade,  Protection,  Corn  Laws. 
Mongredien's  Hist,  of  the  Free  Trade  Movement  in  Eng. 
Moore's  Friendly  Sermons  to  Protectionist  Manufacturers. 
Newcomb's  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  2. 
NicolPs  Great  Movements  (Harper's  ed.),  p.  244. 
Perry:  i.  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap,  12,  13. 

2.  Introd.  to  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  3. 
Price's  Prac.  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  9. 
Rogers's  Economic  Interpretation  of  Hist.,  Lect.  17,  18. 
Earl  Russell's  Recollections  and  Suggestions,  Chap.  3. 
Schoenhoff's  Destructive  Influence  of  the  Tariff  upon   Manu- 

facture and  Commerce,  and  the  facts  and  figures  relating 

thereto. 

Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  1-3. 
Dugald  Stewart's  Polit.  Economy,  Pt.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  3,  sec.  i, 

subsect.  2.     Collected  Works  (Edin.,  1856),  9.  22. 
Sturtevant's  Economics,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  7-9. 
W.  G.  Sumner-.   i.  Protection  in  the  U.  S. 

2.  Protection  and  Revenue  in  1877. 

3.  Protectionism. 

Taussig's  Tariff  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1789-1888.     (Includes  Pro- 

tection to  young  Industries,  and  Hist,  of  Present  Tariff.) 
Taylor's  Is  Protection  a  Benefit  ? 

Vethake's  Polit.  Econ.  (Philad.,  1838),  Bk.  4,  Chap.  6-14. 
A.  Walker's  Sci.  of  Wealth,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  3-5. 
F.  A.  Walker's  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  6,  Chap.  13. 
Walter's  What  is  Free  Trade  ? 
Wayland's  Polit.  Econ,,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3,  sec.  6. 
Wells  :  i.  Why  we  Trade,  and  How  we  Trade. 

2.  Relation  of  the  Tariff  to  Wages. 
White's  Tariff  Question. 

Woodbury's  Writings,  1.  519.     Same,  Hunt,  8.  407. 
Atlan.,  28.  460;  36.  204. 


204      DEFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Brit.  Q.,  69.  369  (Am.  ed.,  pi  192)  ;  74.  417  (Am.  ed.,  p.  215). 
Ed.  R.,  33.  331  ;  72.  418  (Am.  ed.,  p.  221);  78.  I  ;  90.  133 

(Am.  ed.,  p.  70)  ;  94.  140  (Am.  ed.,  p.  70)  ;  96.  526  (Am. 

ed.,  p.  275). 

For.  Q.,  9.  261 ;  10.  68 ;  11.  140. 
Forum,  8.  475  (Protection  and  the  Farmer). 
Hunt,  4.  227  ;  6.  9  ;   8.  407 ;   9.  161. 
Internal.  R.,  7.  427. 
Nation,  4.  90  ;    9.  333,  428  ;   28.  161  ;    29.  338  ;    34.  288  ;    36. 

Il8;  47.  87,235. 
N.  Princ.,  3.  164. 

Mles's  Reg.,  34.  81  ;  41.  135,  156. 
I9th  Cent.,  7.  367 ;  19.  807;  21.  273. 
No.  Am.,  19.  223  ;   125.  no,  283.  544;   136.  270,  571  ;   139. 

274-279 ;  144.  89-92  ;  146.  226  ;  150.  I  (Gladstone)  ;  150. 

505»  638. 
Our  Day,  3.  10. 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  3.  17. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  14.  389 ;  35.  626. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  3.  649;  7.  241  ;  12.  261. 
Q  J.  Econ.,  3.  87  (The  Australian  Tariff  Experiment). 
Westm.,  12.  138;  18.  366;  19.  269;   20.  238;   40.  I  ;    45.  223 

(Am.  ed..  p.    117);    117.  384;    128.  61,  829. 
Westm.,  131.  611.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  113.  159. 


COMMERCE   AND   MANUFACTURES. 

109.    Has  Commerce  contributed  more  to  the  development 
of  modern  civilization  -than  Manufactures  ? 

Commerce  and  manufactures  both  have  immediate  re- 
spect to  man's  material  interests,  but  have  beside  higher 
uses.  Still,  the  material  side  of  civilization  is  of  the  first 
importance,  and  is  the  necessary  basis  and  condition  of  the 
spiritual.  Commerce  implies  activity,  increases  wealth  and 
material  comfort,  and  promotes  intercourse  and  consequent 
social  and  intellectual  development^  Manufactures  imply 
inventiveness  and  industry,  add  immensely  to  man's  re- 
sources, and  minister  to  his  manifold  heeds.  They  are  the 
product  of  his  creative  skill  and  power,  bear  the  impress  of 
his  mind,  and  are  a  measure  of  his  progress. 


fOLITICAL  ECONOMY.  2O$ 

The  two  are  mutually  dependent.  Manufactures  furnish 
materials,  and  thus  the  occasion  for  commerce  ;  while  com- 
merce is  the  distribution  of  manufactures,  thus  giving  them 
a  market.  Each  has  had  a  development  corresponding  to 
the  growth  of  civilization ;  each  is,  indeed,  a  component 
and  necessary  factor  in  that  growth. 

COMMERCE. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1877,  p.  109;  1878,  p.  114;  1879,  pp.  161,  182; 
1880,  p.  121. 

Am.  Almanac,  1889,  pp.  26,  110,  129. 

Bourne's  Romance  of  Trade,  Chap.  4,  5,  10. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy,  Chap.  12. 

Cyc.  of  Commerce,  ed.  by  Romans  (N.  Y.,  1859),  art.  Com- 
merce, p.  374. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  p.  94. 

Ely's  Problems  of  To-day,  Chap.  4. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  9.  395 ;  9th  ed.,  6.  201-207  ;  8.  233-239. 

First  Century  of  the  Republic,  Chap.  6.  Same,  Harper,  51. 
260. 

Hume's  Philosophical  Works  (Host.,  1854),  3.  277. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  1.  1048. 

l,alor's  Cyc.  of^Polit.  Sti.,  1.  510.  ••  •*• 

Levi's  Hist,  of  Brit  Cofmnerce,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  ,1880).  A 

Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  V.  2,  Chap.  16. 

Seaman's  Progress  of  Nations,  V.  i,  Chap.  3,  sec.  6,  Chap.  13. 

Still's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist,  Chap.  15. 

Winthrop's  Addresses  and  Speeches,  1.  39.  Same,  Hunt,  14. 
122. 

Woodbury's  Writings,  3.  101-102. 

Ed.  R.,  164.  i. 

Hunt,  1.  n,  200;  2.  9;  3.  394;  4.  415;  5.  37;  10.  65,  456; 
13.  245;  14.  60;  22.  385,  595;  24.  147,  174,  531,  681; 
25.39;  27.  33,  147;  33.  147. 

MANUFACTURES. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1882,  p.  498. 

Bourne's  Romance  of  Trade,  Chap.  9. 

Babbage's  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy,  Chap.  10. 

Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  1880,  V.  2,  Manufactures. 


206      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS 

Encyc.  Brit,  9th  ed.,  8.  230-233. 

First  Century  of  the  Republic,  Chap.  3.    Same,  Harper,  50.  702. 

Jeans's  Creators  of  the  Age  of  Steel. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  3.  287. 

Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (N.  Y.),  6.  206-231. 

Lossing's  Hist,  of  Am.  Industries  and  Arts. 

Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  2.  99-102. 

Seaman's  Progress  of  Nations,  V.  I,  Chap.  8. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  4.  375- 

lul.  R.,  61.  453- 

Hunt,  19.  661. 

1 9th  Cent.,  20.  530. 

No.  Am.,  136.  507. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  11.  213. 


BIMETALISM. 

no.    Is  the  maintenance  of  a  double  standard  of  value  in 

exchanges  practicable  or  desirable  ? 
iii.    Is  the  single  gold  valuation  the  true  economic  policy 

for  nations  ? 

Money  serves  ^wo^.  important  purposes,  —  as  a  standard  of 
^aluc  and  as  a  medium  of  exchanged  and  has,  in  these  re- 
spects, a  necessary  use  in  representing  the  material  interests 
of  life.  It  has  also  a  higher  use,  but  this  is  as  the  material 
serves  the  spiritual.  Hence  its  function,  in  its  right  use,  is 
of  great  practical  importance— | 

That  which  shall  be  fixed  upon  to  use  for  money  must 
possess  certain  properties  that  shall  fit  it  for  its  use.  These 
requisite  properties  the  precious  metals,  gold  and  silver, 
possess  in  the  highest  degree ;  and  of  the  two,  gold  pos- 
sesses them  in  a  higher  degree  than  silver. 

The  question  of  bimetalism  and  monometalism  is  whether 
both  of  the  precious  metals  shall  be  used  as  money  in 
its  full  sense,  that  is,  for  a  standard  of  value  as  well  as  for 
a  medium  of  exchange.  This  is  a  question  the  significance 
of  which  is  not  simply  national  or  local,  but  international  or 
universal.  What  is  the  usage  of  the  nations  in  this  respect? 
What  nations  use  the  single  gold  standard,  what  the  silver, 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  2O/ 

and  what  both  ?  How  far,  for  the  best  ends  of  commerce, 
is  uniformity  of  usage  desirable  ?  Does  the  path  of  progress 
seem  to  be  from  the  use  of  both  metals  to  the  use  of  gold 
as  the  single  standard  of  value  ?  What  are  the  reasons 
which  seem  to  make  this  not  only  certain,  but  legitimate 
and  desirable  ?  On  the  other  hand,  are  there  nations  which 
are  likely  to  continue  the  use  of  silver,  either  with  gold,  or 
as  a  single  standard  ?  Is  this  inevitable,  and,  on  the  whole, 
best?  In  what  sense  and  degree,  then,  is  it  an  interna- 
tional, and  how  a  national  question? 

Stability  of  value  is  one  of  the  chief  points  in  question. 
Its  importance  is  conceded  by  all.  How  it  may  be  best 
secured  is  the  real  question  at  issue.  Can  it  be  better 
secured  by  the  concurrent  use  of  the  two  metals,  or  by  the 
use  of  but  one?  Can  a  fixed  ratio  of  value  between  the 
two  metals  be  agreed  upon  which  shall  make  them  answer 
the  desired  end? 

What  are  the  causes  of  the  depreciation  and  appreciation 
of  the  two  metals?  And  how  does  each  of  these  results 
bear  on  the  problem  to  be  solved?  How,  also,  does  the 
supply  of  the  metals  bear  on  the  point  of  variation  of  value, 
as  well  as  on  the  general  question?  Would  the  supply  of 
gold  be  sufficient  for  its  use  as  the  universal  standard  of 
value?  Or 'would  the  addition  of  silver  be  an  advantage,  if 
not  a  necessity  ?  Does  the  demonetization  of  silver  work 
beneficially  or  injuriously? 

Bolles's  Financial  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  3,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  5. 

Internat.  Monetary  Conf.  at  Paris,  June,  1867  :  Sen.  Doc.,  4oth 
Cong.  2d  Sess.,  No.  14;  Ex.  Doc.,  4ist  Cong.  2d  Sess., 
No.  266.  Ibid.,  1878  :  Sen.  Doc.,  No.  58,  45th  Cong.  3d 
Sess.  Ibid.,  1881:  Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1881,  p.  60,  art.  Bimetal- 
lic Standard. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  58,  art.  Paris  Monetary  Conference. 

Patterson's  New  Golden  Age,  and  Influence  of  the  Precious 
Metals  upon  the  World. 

Reports  from  the  Consuls  of  the  U.  S.,  No.  87,  Dec.  1887  (Bi- 
metalism  in  Europe). 

Nation,  49.  266  (Paris  Monetary  Conf.,  1889). 


2O8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

W.  L.  Fawcett's  Gold  and  Debt :  An  American  Handbook  of 

Finance.     (See  Table  of  Contents.) 
Howe's  Monometalism  and  Bimetalism. 
Laveleye's  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.,  pp.  202-204. 
Rep.  of  the  U.  S   Monetary  [Silver]  Commission,  2  vols. ;  Sen. 

Rep.,  44th  Cong.  2d   Sess.,  No.  703. 
Seyd's  Bullion  and  Foreign  Exchange,  Pt.  3,  Chap  3-6. 
F.  A.  Walker:  I.  Money,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  12-13. 

2.  Money  in  its  Relation  to  Trade  and  Industry, 

Chap.  6-7. 
Blackw.,  148.  268. 
Independent,  1892,  Feb.  5,  p.  20. 
Forum,  2.  243. 
Nation,  26.  113;  29.  41. 
loth  Cent,  19.  882;  26.  1014. 

No.  Am.,  124.  289 ;  14O.  489-492  ;  141.  491-507  ;  148.  226. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  3.  28. 
Westm.,  131.  215. 

NEGATIVE. 

Bowen's  Gleanings  from  a  Lit  Life,  p.  33.     (Minority  Rep.  on 

the  Silver  Question.     Presented  to  the  Senate  of  the  U.  S., 

Apr.,  1877)- 

Jevons:  I.  Money  and  the  Mechanism  of  Exchange,  Chap.  12. 
2.  Investigations  in  Currency  and  Finance,  Chap.  13. 
Lalor's  Cyc  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  883-884,  in  art.  Money. 
Laughlin's  Hist,  of  Bimetalism  in  the  U.  S.      Rev.  in    Dial 

(Chicago),  6.  277. 

Lindeman's  Money  and  Legal  Tender  in  the  U.  SM  Chap.  21. 
McAdam's  Alphabet  in  Finance,  Chap.  2-4,  6-9,  27. 
Mill's  Polit  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  10. 
Plait's  Money  (N.  Y.  and  Lond.,  1889),  pp.  67-69. 
Poor:   i.  Money  and  its  Laws,  App.,  pp.  615-616. 

2.  Resumption  and  the  Silver  Question,  Pt  3. 
Sherman's  Speeches  and  Reports  on  Finance,  p.  179.     Same, 

Sen.  Rep.,  4oth  Cong.  2d  Sess.,  No.  117,  pp.  1-7. 
Upton's  Money  in  Politics,  Chap.  19-22 
Alex.  J.  Wilson's  Reciprocity,  Bimetalism,  etc.,  Chap.  4. 
Contemp.,  39.  752.    Same,  Ed.  M.,  97.  8. 
Contemp.,  52.  795. 
Fortn.,  32.  278. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  209 

Nation,  26.  94;  27.  156,  379;  28.  297,  346;  42.  185;  43.  172; 

45.  156  :  49.  402. 
I9th  Cent.,  26.  863. 
No.  Am.,  140.  485-489,  492. 
Princ.,  x.  s.,  4.  546 ;  7.  342. 
Westm.,  131.  667. 


AN   INCOME   TAX. 

112.  Can  an  income  tax  law  be  framed  which  shall  be  equi- 

table in  principle  and  efficient  in  administration  ? 

113.  Is  a  graduated  income  tax  fust  or  expedient  ? 

These  questions  respecting  an  income  tax  involve  the 
whole  subject  of  taxation,  —  its  nature,  conditions,  ends, 
methods ;  since,  in  order  rightly  to  estimate  its  advantages 
and  disadvantages,  it  must  both  be  judged  on  general  prin- 
ciples, and  compared  with  other  methods  of  taxation. 

The  necessity  of  taxation  is  implied  in  the  necessity  of 
government.  It  is  the  necessary  price  paid  by  the  indi- 
vidual  for  the  benefits  conferred  by  government.  Like  the 
administration  of  government  in  general,  it  has  in  it  an 
element  of  compulsion ;  and  this  is  more  manifest,  if  not 
more  real,  in  direct  than  in  indirect  taxation.  This  com- 
pulsion is  the  assertion  of  the  supremacy  of  the  government, 
in  certain  respects,  over  the  individual,  and  appears  on  its 
fice  as  an  abridgment  of  his  personal  freedom ;  while  the 
important  benefits  received  in  return,  by  which  not  only  his 
protection  but  his  freedom  and  development  are  secured, 
are  not  always  duly  appreciated. 

Yet  in  the  whole  matter  of  taxation,  there  are  difficulties, 
whose  practical  solution  is  far  from  easy.  In  the  best  gov- 
ernment, the  most  wisely  administered,  an  approximation 
to  a  perfect  system  of  taxation  is  all  that  can  be  hoped  for. 
The  theory  of  the  tax  requires  that  it  be  levied  on  property, 
not  only  because  this  has  the  protection  of  government,  but 
also  because  it  implies  an  ability  to  pay,  especially  if  it  be 
productive.  But  a  just  government  will  aim  not  only  to 
raise  a  sufficient  revenue,  but  to  do  it  by  an  assessment  that 


210      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

shall  be  equitable,  that  is,  that  shall  be  proportional  to  the 
ability  of  its  citizens  severally.  How  can  this  best  be  done  ? 
Can  an  income  tax  law  be  so  framed  and  administered  that 
it  shall  meet  this  requisite  condition,  and  become  a  part  of 
the  general  system  of  taxation  ?  How  far  do  the  objections 
to  it  lie  against  all  direct  personal  taxation?  and  how  far  is 
it  possible  to  obviate  them  ?  How  far  is  it  a  tax  on,  and  a 
discouragement  of,  enterprise  and  thrift?  Is  it,  in  its  ad- 
ministration, necessarily  inquisitorial,  and  a  temptation  to 
perjury  in  making  returnsf  Ou  the  other  hand,  how  far 
would  it  encourage  a  better  knowledge,  by  each  one  con- 
cerned, of  the  state  of  his)own  business?  How  has  the 
income  tax  law  worked  ir>  England,  and  in  other  countries 
where  it  has  been  in  operation?  Would  it  be  advisable 
to  introduce  it  into  trjts  cpdntry  as  a  permanent  feature  of 
State  taxation? 

Bowen's  Am.  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  pp  437-443. 

Cooley's  Law  of  Taxation,  2d  ed.,  ; 

Cossa's  Taxation,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1888),  Pt.  3,  Chap,  n,  sec.  i. 

Ely's  Taxation  in  Am.  States  and  Cities  (aff.). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  485. 

.Mill's  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  2,  sec.  3,  4;   Chap.  3, 

sec.  5. 

Newcomb's  Polit.  Econ.  Bk.  5,  Chap.  3,  sec.  27. 
Perry's  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  14,  sec.  3  (aff.). 
Thompson's  Polit.  Econ..  sec.  178-180. 
A.  Walker's  Science  of  Wealth.  Bk.  4,  Chap.  10  (aff.). 
F.  A.  Walker's  Polit.  Econ.,  sec.  467,  474-482. 
Black w.,  68.  61 1. 
Contemp.,  38.  101. 

Ed.  R.,  57.  143;  97.  530  (Am.  ed.,  p.  267). 
Fraser.  47.  157. 
Nation,  9.  452  ;  26.  162.  287. 
New  Eng.,  37.  543. 
No.  Am.,  130.  236. 

Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  4.  37  (Income  and  Property  Taxes  in  Switzerland). 
Westm.,  77.  97  (Am.  ed.,  p.  53). 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  211 


TAXATION   OF   CHURCH   PROPERTY. 

114.  Should  church  property  which  is  used  exclusively  for 

public  worship  be  taxed? 

115.  Should  church  buildings,  with  their  lots  and  furnish- 

ings ,  be  exempt  from  taxation  ? 

In  the  discussion  of  this  subject  the  general  principle  or 
rule  of  taxation  should  be  considered,  and  also  the  reasons 
for  the  exceptions  to  the  rule,  or  tax  exemption. 

On  what  principle  has  churcn-*p4-pper^  been  generally 
exempted,  and  what  is  its  validity?  Let  the  reasons  for 
taxation,  on  the  one  hand,  and  for  exemption,  on  the  other, 
be  stated  and  compared.  If  property  in  general  is  taxable, 
the  presumption  is  that  church  property  should  be,  unless 
a  sufficient  reason  can  be  given  for  its  exemption.  Would 
its  exemption  conduce  more  to  the  general  welfare  than 
its  taxation?  What  is  the  importance  of  the  contribution 
made  by  religious  organizations  in  general  to  private  and 
public  morality,  to  social  order,  to  charities,  to  good  gov- 
ernment, to  civilization?  And  what  is  the  bearing  of  facts 
of  this  kind  on  the  question? 

What  should  be  the  relation  between  the  Church  and 
the  State  ?  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Church  is  a  public 
benefit,  should  the  State  accord  it  any  kind  or  degree  of 
and  encouragement  ? 


s  not  exemption  in  the  nature  of  a  subsidy  ?  And  since 
the  general  tax  is  thereby  raised  proportionally,  is  it  not 
practically  the  same  as  if  all  were  taxed  for  the  churches  ? 
The  justice  of  such  a  general  tax,  without  respect  to  the 
belief  of  the  persons  taxed,  for  the  benefit  of  all  religious 
bodies,  would  properly  come  up  for  consideration.  This 
cannot  be  regarded  as,fany  the  less  a  real  tax  because  it  is 
indirect,  and  is  not  actually  levied  for  the  specific  object. 
In  this  view  the  taxation  of  church  property  would  diminish 
the  tax  of  those  wh6*«do  not,  and  increase  that  of  those 
who  do,  contribute  .tlifeftly  to  the  Church.  Is  the  indirect 


..»•• 

'..  %  . 


212      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

benefit,  which  all  receive  from  the  Church,  a  full  equivalent 
for  the  indirect  tax  which  they  pay? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Spear's  Religion  and  the  State,  Chap.  23. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1873,  July  17,  p.  908;  Aug.  28,  p.  1077; 

Sept.  n,  p.  1136.     1874,  May  28,  p.  5;   1875,  Mar.  25,  p. 

16;  1876,  June  8,  p.  3;  1880,  Apr.  22,  p.  14;  1881,  June 

23,  p.  17. 
Nation,  22.  23. 

No.  Am.,  133.  255  (E.  E.  Hale  :  Would  grant  exemption  to 
churches  in  oroortion  to  their  contributions  to  public 
charities). 

No.  Am.,  149.  636. 

O.  and  N.,  6.  649  ;  7.  580  ;  11.  529. 

NEGATIVE. 

Cooley's  Law  of  Taxation,  pp.  1 19,  202. 

Ely's  Taxation  in  Am.  States  and  Cities,  p.  314  (Favors  ex- 
empting church  buildings  and  lots). 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1876,  Jan.  27,  p.  3  ;  Feb.  3,  p.  3  ;  Feb. 

24,  p.  3. 

Meth.  Q.,  36.  243. 
New  Eng.,  56.  177. 
No.  Am.,  131.  362. 
Presb.  Q.,  3.  240. 

THE   SYSTEM   OF   HENRY   GEORGE. 

*• 

1 1 6.  Is  the  economic  system  of  Henry  George  sound  iimi^ 

general  principles  and  conclusions  ? 

117.  Does  poverty  increase  with  progress  ? 

1 1 8.  Is  the  private  ownership  of  land  wrong  and  productive 

of  evil? 

119.  Should  there  be  a  single  tax,  levied  on  land  values  ? 

In  its  theory  the  system  of  He^ry  George  is  radical,  in 
its  practical  working  revolutionary.  Its  foundation  is  the 
alleged  fact  that  material  progress,*  far  from  abating,  in- 
creases poverty.  Yet  this  is  rathe»*assumed  than  proved, 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  points  in%ftis$ute.  The  system, 


. 

•  •*  v*  '• 
••• 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  213 

reasoned  out  from  this  as  a  starting  point,  is  in  form  eco- 
nomic, while  in  spirit  and  aim  it  is  sociological.  Its  practi- 
cal aim  is  the  righting  of  wrongs,  the  restoration  of  equality, 
and  the  promotion  of  universal  prosperity.  The  wrong  which 
is  regarded  as  the  prolific  source  of  all  social  wrongs  is  the 
holding  of  land  as  private  proverty;  and  the  single  tax  on 
land  values  is  proposed  as  the  certain  panacea  for  the  man- 
ifold human  ills.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  system  is  not 
merely  theoretic,  but  moral ;  hence  it  is- both  advocated  and 
attacked  on  moral  as  well  as  on  scientific  grounds.  It  is  a 
certain  evangel  for  the  poor ;  whether  true  or  false  must  be 
determined  by  its  proof. 

Its  proof  is  chiefly  where  its  author  places  it,  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  Political  Economy  with  respect  to  labor,  wages, 
rent,  etc.  Are  the  conclusions  of  the  new  system  logical 
and  legitimate  ?  It  is  a  well-linked  system,  with  premises, 
arguments,  and  conclusions,  all  together  making  a  whole 
with  a  certain  unity. 

As  a  whole,  as  presented  in  the  first  question,  it  must  be 
examined  in  its  parts  to  see  whether  they  cohere ;  that  is, 
there  must  be  analysis  to  see  if  there  is  a  true  synthesis,  — 
an  examination  of  the  truth  of  the  parts  to  see  if  the  whole 
be  true. 

But  each  part  is  in  itself  a  whole,  and  may  have  a  sepa- 
rate discussion.  The  second  question  is  one  of  fact.  Do 
the  facts,  comprehensively  and  impartially  considered,  sus- 
tain George's  view  ?  In  discussing  the  third  question,  the 
nature  of  property,  and  especially  of  property  in  land,  must 
be  considered.  If  private  property  in  land  is,  as  alleged, 
"  robbery,"  it  is  immoral,  and  it  would  not  be  immoral  to 
abolish  it  without  compensation  to  the  pretended  owners. 
But  is  there  any  ground  for  such  an  accusation? 

In  the  fourth  question,  the  single  tax  implies,  in  its  dis- 
cussion, the  whole  subject  of  taxation.  Yet  this  is  regarded 
as  a  means  for  the  production  of  a  social  revolution,  a  social 
millennium.  The  tax  is  really  a  rent,  and  the  levying  of  it 
would  be  the  nationalization  of  land  by  the  confiscation  of 
rents. 


214      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Henry  George  :  i.  Progress  and  Poverty. 

2.  Social  Problems. 

3.  Protection  or  Free  Trade,  Chap.  25-29. 

4.  Property  in  Land.      A  passage  at  arms  be- 

tween the  Duke  of  Argyll  and  Henry 
George  (pam.).  Same,  ipth  Cent.,  15. 
537;  16.  134. 

5.  The  Land  Question  (pam.). 

6.  The  Standard,  ed.  by  Henry  George. 
Spencer's  Social  Statics,  Chap.  9,  The  Right  to  the  Use  of  the 

Earth.     (Denies  the  right  of  private  property  in  land,  and 
maintains  that  it  should  be  owned  by  society.) 

Chr.  Union,  1839,  Mar.  7,  p.  294 ;  Apr.  4,  p.  422. 

Forum,  8.  40. 

No.  Am.,  145.  i  (George). 

Westm.,  137.  513. 

NEGATIVE. 

Atkinson's  Industrial  Progress  of  the  Nation,  p.  351. 

Baker's    Monopolies    and   the    People,   pp.   216-223    (Private 

Ownership  of  Land). 

Ely's  Recent  Am.  Socialism,  J.  H.  Univ.  Studies,  3.  246-249. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  897  (Private  Ownership  of  Land). 
Mallock's   Property   and   Progress    (N.  Y.,    1884),   pp.    1-82. 

Same,  Quar.,  155.  35  (Am.  ed.,  p.  19). 
J.  B.  Miller's  Progress  and  Robbery. 
Perry's  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  7. 
Rae's  Contemporary  Socialism,  Chap.  9. 
Sturtevant's  Economics,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  6  ;  also  sec.  213-214. 
Walker's  Land  and  its  Rent,  Chap.  3,  pp.  141-182. 
Am.  Law  R.,  19.  878  (Private  Property  in  Land  not  absolute). 
And.  R.,  6.  429;  8.  592. 

Contemp.,  44.  850  (The  Nationalization  of  Land). 
Ed.  R.,  157.  263  (Am.  ed.,  p.  134). 
Forum,  3.  15,  433. 
Nation,  31.  65,  117  ;  38.  237. 

New  Eng.,  8.  220  (The  Right  of  Property  in  Land). 
N.  Princ.,  3.  259. 
No.  Am.,  137.  147  ;  141.  i. 
Presb.  R.,  9.  177. 
Princ.,  N,  s.,  9.  125. 
Quar.,  155.  35  (Am.  ed.,  p.  19). 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  21$ 


MONOPOLIES. 

120.  Are  monopolies,  on  the  whole,  more  a  good  than  an  evil 

to  the  public? 

121.  Is  the  present  general  tendency  to  minimize  competition 

by  the  formation  of  monopolies  an  evil? 

To  most  persons  the  word  "  monopoly  "  has  an  ill  sound, 
as  denoting  that  which  is  exclusive  and  partial.  Yet  it 
stands  for  a  principle  belonging  to  human  nature  and  to  the 
nature  of  things,  which  has  a  legitimate  and  necessary  place 
in  society.  In  itself,  therefore,  properly  limited  and  kept 
in  its  place,  and  directed  to  its  legitimate  end,  it  is  not  evil, 
but  good.  But  of  most  actual  monopolies  it  may  doubtless 
be  said  that,  if  good,  they  are  also  evil ;  and  the  question 
is,  whether  monopolies  as  they  exist,  taken  in  the  aggregate, 
and  considering  human  nature  as  it  is,  are,  to  the  general 
public,  rather  a  good  than  an  evil. 

In  discussing  this  question  monopoly  must  be  considered 
in  connection  with  its  antagonistic  principle,  competition.  In 
the  general  economy  of  society  each  has  its  place  ;  and,  in 
some  sense  and  degree,  each  may  be  a  check  upon  and  a 
corrective  of  the  other.  Excessive  competition  may  some- 
times produce  a  reaction  which  shall  result  in  monopolies ; 
while  the  greed  of  monopolies  may  be  moderated  and  re- 
strained by  the  fear  of  possible  competition.  Competition 
itself  is  a  striving  against  others  for  an  advantage  which,  in 
its  perfection,  would  be  a  monopoly.  If  the  two  exist  to- 
gether in  their  entirety,  it  cannot  be  in  respect  to  the  same 
thing ;  for  strictly  monopoly,  as  far  as  it  goes,  kills  com- 
petition. Indeed,  this  is  one  of  the  charges  against  it,  for 
competition  is  considered  a  good,  or  at  least  a  necessary  evil, 
the  operation  of  which  issues  in  good.  But  competition 
has  likewise  its  evils ;  so  that  in  respect  to  evils  there  may 
in  some  things  be  a  choice  between  monopoly  and  compe- 
tition. By  some  the  railroad  is  regarded  as  an  example  of 
this  kind,  in  respect  to  which  monopoly  is  a  good,  and  so 
far  as  it  may  be  also  an  evil  is  esteemed  as  less  so  than 


2l6      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

competition.  Hence  it  is, said  that  the  consolidation  of 
railroad  lines,  by  which  competition  is  eliminated,  is  a  good, 
the  attendant  evils  of  which  may  be  restrained  by  govern- 
ment regulation,  without  competition. 

In  monopoly  there  is  unity  and  poiver ;  in  competition 
individual  freedom  and  constant  strife  for  the  supremacy. 
What  are  the  benefits  and  the  evils  of  each  to  the  producer 
and  the  seller  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  buyer  and 
the  consumer  on  the  other?  Is  society  surely  gravitating 
toward  combinations  or  monopolies  which  shall  supersede 
the  wastefulness  and  war  of  competition  ?  Is  this  tendency 
to  be  deprecated  and  resisted,  or  accepted  and  guided  ?  Is 
it  in  the  true  line  of  progress  ? 

Monopoly  may  too  often  be  the  concentration  of  selfish- 
ness. Its  unity  and  power  give  it  efficiency  for  evil,  as  for 
good ;  and  doubtless  enough  can  be  proved  against  it  to 
justify  the  popular  apprehension  and  dislike.  So  far  as  in 
any  way  or  degree  monopolies  become  irresponsible,  they 
are  dangerous.  But  they  cannot  become  wholly  irrespon- 
sible. Men,  as  individuals  and  in  combinations,  are  hedged 
about  with  natural  and  moral  laws,  from  which  they  can  in 
no  way  escape  ;  and  public  sentiment  may  require  and  pro- 
vide that  new  combinations  affecting  the  public  welfare  shall 
in  some  way  be  held  amenable  to  the  civil  law. 

While  the  question  will  naturally  be  discussed  as  a  pres- 
ent problem,  some  light  on  the  nature  and  influence  of 
monopolies  will  be  found  in  the  history  of  those  which  have 
existed  in  the  past,  of  which  mention  is  made  in  some  of 
the  references. 

Adams's  Railroads  :  their  Origin  and  Progress. 

Baker's  Monopolies  and  the  People. 

Blanqui's  Hist,  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 

Bourne's  Romance  of  Trade,  Chap.  6. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  705. 

Ely:  i.  Problems  of  To-day,  Chap   17-20,  22,  30. 

2.  Introd.  to  Pflit.  Econ.,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  6. 
Hudson's  Railways  and  the  Republic,  Chap.  I,  3,  6,  8,  II. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.}  2.  890. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 

Marshall  :  i.   Economics  of  Industry,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4. 

2.  Principles  of  Economics,  2d  ed.,  V.    I,   Bk.  5, 

Chap.  13. 

Mill's  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  10,  sec.  4. 
Newcomb's  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4. 
Perry's  Polit.  Econ.,  p.  190. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations.     See  Index. 
Thompson's  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Walker's  Polit.  Econ.,  p.  433. 
And.  R.;  2.  455  (Competition  and  Combination). 
Atlan.,  47.  317. 
Forum,  7.  436. 
Internat.  R.,  1.  370. 
Nation,  11.  361  ;  18.  359;  35.  170. 
No.    Am.,  104.  428;  117.  80;   136.    181  ;   138.    535    (Lloyd, 

Lords  of  Industry);  144.  43,  277. 
Quar.,  131.  460  (Am.  ed.,  p.  243). 
Q.  J.  Econ.,  1.  28. 


TRUSTS. 

122.  Are  the  so  called  Trusts -,  in  their  working  and  influence, 

a  benefit  to  the  public? 

123.  Do  Trusts  threaten  our  institutions  so  as  to  warrant 

adverse  legislation  I 

124.  Are  Trusts,  in  their  tendency,  subversive  of  industrial 

liberty  ? 

Since  Trusts  are  combinations  of  corporations,  constitut- 
ing large  and  powerful  monopolies,  the  general  remarks 
made  on  monopolies  under  the  preceding  questions  will 
apply  especially  to  them.  Trusts  should,  however,  be  con- 
sidered in  respect  to  their  peculiar  nature,  their  relation  to 
the  public,  and  their  general  influence.  That  is,  they  should 
be  considered  not  only  on  a  priori  or  general  principles,  but 
also  in  respect  to  the  facts  which  concern  their  nature, 
working,  and  influence. 

The  aim  is  to  control  production,  the  market,  and  prices. 
This  is  done  by  swallowing  up  or  crushing  all  competi- 
tors, resulting  in  the  complete  appropriation  of  some  form 


2l8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

of  industry.  Competition  is  thus  rendered  impotent  and 
null,  and  whatever  advantages  it  may  have  afforded  are  lost. 
Does  the  exchange  of  competition  for  combination  or  mo- 
nopoly afford  additional  compensating  advantages?  It  is 
claimed  for  such  combinations  that  they  afford  a  remedy 
for  over-production,  and  that  they  secure  greater  uniformity 
of  production.  It  is  also  claimed  that,  by  cheapening  pro- 
duction through  the  ability  to  employ  improved  methods, 
they  cheapen  prices,  and  likewise  that  prices  may  be  kept 
more  uniform.  These  are  points  of  interest  to  the  public, 
and  Trusts  will  be  held  to  an  account  for  making  good  their 
claims. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  general  apprehension  felt  respect- 
ing the  power  of  corporations  will  inevitably  be  increased 
by  the  increase  from  combination,  of  this  power.  In  short, 
the  so  called  Trusts  seem,  from  their  very  nature,  calculated 
rather  to  awaken  in  the  public  mind  suspicion  and  doubt 
than  to  inspire  trust.  They  seem  to  represent  the  power 
of  selfishness,  with  too  little  of  check.  Hence,  even  though 
it  could  be  shown  that  in  themselves  they  are  not  bad,  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  them  from  abuse  might  prove  a  serious 
objection  to  them. 

Baker's  Monopolies  and  the  People,  Chap.  2. 

Bonham's  Industrial  Liberty,  Chap.  3-7. 

House  Reports,  5oth  Cong.  1st  Sess.,  V.  9,  No.  3112.     Rep.  on 

Investigation  of  Trusts. 
And.  R.,  10.  109. 
Atlan.,  47.  317. 

Chaut.,  10.  571,  699  (How  to  deal  with  them). 
Chr.  Union,  1889,  Oct.  10,  p.  417. 
Contemp.,  57.  829.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  115.  223. 
Forum,  5.  584;  8.  61  (Beach).    Ans.  Nation,  49.  186. 
Forum,  13.  300. 
Nation,  44.  380  ;  49.  65. 
New  Eng.,  52.  223,  343. 

N.  Y.  Tribune  (Weekly  ed.),  1890,  Feb.  5,  p.  6. 
No.  Am.,  136.  181,  191  ;  146.  509;  148.  141. 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  3.  385,  592. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  34.  619. 
Spec.,  64.  788  (Progress  of). 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  219 

COMPETITION. 

125.  Is  free  competition  in  production  and  trade  necessary 

for  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned? 

126.  Do  the  benefits  of  competition  in  business  outweigh 

its  evils  1 

Competition  signifies  that  two  or  more  are  seeking  the 
same  thing,  not  together  as  one,  but  each  for  himself;  hence 
arises  a  strife  for  victory  or  for  superiority.  The  necessity 
and  occasion  for  the  strife  exist  in  the  constitution  of  things, 
the  impulse  to  it  in  human  nature.  It  enters  into  trade  as 
one  of  its  chief  characteristics.  It  is  the  perpetual  stimulus 
of  trade,  the  supply  in  its  various  hands  competing  for  the 
demand.  It  is  likewise  a  stimulus  in  production,  at  times 
bringing  about  over-production.  It  has  an  important  in- 
fluence on  prices.  Individual  freedom  implies  freedom  of 
competition ;  that  is,  under  a  free  government,  with  certain 
limitations,  any  individual  is  free  to  do  his  best  in  whatever 
legitimate  undertaking  he  may  choose  to  engage. 

Competition  takes  its  character  from  the  character  of  the 
competitors.  At  the  best,  as  a  controlling  principle,  it  is 
selfishness,  each  for  himself;  at  the  worst,  it  is  the  hard 
cruelty  of  selfishness.  It  should,  then,  be  considered  in 
both  its  economic  and  its  moral  aspect,  for  the  economic 
cannot  be  divorced  from  the  moral.  The  economic  is 
moral. 

What,  then,  is  the  real  place  of  competition  in  social 
economics  ?  Should  it  have  a  ruling,  or  but  a  subordinate 
place?  May  there  be  agreement,  in  various  forms,  which 
shall  swallow  up  antagonism  with  its  good  and  evil  ?  Not- 
withstanding the  antagonisms  of  competition,  it  has  also  a 
certain  unity ;  since  all  are  striving  for  and  together  pro- 
moting one  end,  the  supply  on  the  best  terms  of  the 
demand.  The  motive,  self-interest,  is  one  of  the  strongest 
in  human  nature,  and  has  a  function  that  is  legitimate  and 
necessary.  But  may  not  self-interest  have  place  in  associa- 
tion and  co-operation,  as  well  as  in  separation  and  compe- 


220      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

tition?     May  not  the  interest  of  each  be  made  compatible 
with  the  interests  of  all  others? 

Baker's  Monopolies  and  the  People,  Chap.  10-12,  pp.  133-161, 

175-182. 

Bastiat's  Harmonies  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  10. 
Bellamy's  Looking  Backward,  Chap.  22. 
Blanqui's  Hist,  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Carey's  Principles  of  Social  Sci.,  V.  3,  Chap.  45.    See  Index. 
Denslow's  Principles  of  Economic  Philos.     See  Index. 
Greeley's  Essays  on  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Hudson's  Railways  and  the  Republic,  Chap.  8. 
Knight's  Knowledge  is  Power,  Chap.  26,  pp.  399-405. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  539. 
McCulloch's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Mill's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  I,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4. 
Ncwcomb's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  6. 
Roscher's  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  i,  sec.  97. 
Walker's  Wages  Question,  p.  157.     See  Index. 
Wayland's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  recast  by  Chapin  (N.  Y., 

1878),  pp.  172-175- 

And.  R.,  2.  455  (Competition  and  Combination). 
Polit.  Sci.  Q.,  2.  45  (The  Limits  of  Competition)  ;  p.  62  (The 

Persistence  of  Competition). 


CO-OPERATION. 

127.  Is  the  principle  of  Industrial  Co-operation  capable  of 

general  and  successful  application  / 

128.  Do  the  experiments  thus  far  in  Co-operation  justify, 

on  the  whole,  the  hope  of  its  ultimate  general  adop- 
tion? 

129.  Is  Co-operation   in   business    more    beneficial    than 

competition  f 

The  principle  of  Industrial  Co-operation  comes  before 
the  public  in  many  practical  experiments.  It  has  been  put 
forward  more  as  a  fact  than  as  a  theory.  It  is  an  idea  or 
theory  practically  exemplified  in  numberless  instances.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  readily  studied  in  its  actuality,  so  as  to 
be  known  for  what  it  is  in  respect  to  its  merits  and  defects. 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  221 

What  does  it  propose  ?  What  does  it  accomplish  ?  In  what 
respects  is  it  superior  or  inferior  to  ordinary  and  long  tried 
methods  ? 

It  is  no  royal  road  to  success.  It  cannot  dispense  with 
the  necessary  conditions  of  success.  When  these  condi- 
tions are  not  met,  failure  is  inevitable.  That  in  the  experi- 
ments of  co-operation  by  all  kinds  of  people,  under  all 
kinds  of  circumstances,  there  should  be  many  failures,  is 
not  then  surprising.  Failures  in  business  under  ordinary 
methods  are  not  uncommon.  What  is  the  bearing  of  suc- 
cess in  co-operation,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  failure  on 
the  other,  as  a  manifestation  and  proof  of  the  nature  and 
effectiveness  of  the  principle  ? 

It  might  seem  that  co-operation,  as  the  union  of  many 
for  the  attainment  of  one  object,  would,  from  its  very 
nature,  contribute  to  success.  But,  like  democracy  in  gov- 
ernment, it  may  have  its  difficulties.  For,  as  Walker  has 
well  said,  "  Co-operation  is  democracy  in  business  "  ;  and 
its  success  will  depend  on  the  fitness  of  those  engaged  in 
it  to  co-operate,  and  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  success. 
Much  will  depend  on  the  manager,  and  hence  much  on  the 
wisdom  exercised  in  his  choice.  Co-operation  has  thus  far 
been  more  successful  in  distribution  than  in  production, 
showing  that  it  is  more  easily  applied  in  the  one  case  than 
in  the  other. 

It  is  a  laborer's  movement,  having  for  its  primary  aim  a 
pecuniary  benefit  in  the  union  of  capital  and  labor,  but  ac- 
companied also  with  important  incidental  results  in  the 
form  of  social  and  moral  improvement.  The  aim  is  to 
gain  the  benefits  of  association  without  the  sacrifice  of  in- 
dividuality. Is  such  an  end  practicable  or  attainable?  The 
history,  and  the  success  or  failure,  of  Co-operative  Associa- 
tions of  various  kinds,  will  furnish  to  both  sides  the  requisite 
data  for  inferences  and  arguments. 

Publications  of  the  Am.  Economic  Assoc.,  V.  I,  No.  4,  Shaw, 
Co-operation  in  a  Western  City;  No.  5,  Bemis,  Co-operation 
in  New  England.  V.  2,  No.  i,  Warner,  Three  Phases  of 
Co-operation  in  the  West. 

Barnard's  Co-operation  as  a  Business. 


222      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Bowen's  Am.  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  117-125. 
Brassey's  Work  and  Wages,  Chap.  13. 
Ely  :  i.  The  Labor  Movement  in  Am.,  Chap.  7. 

2.  Introd.  to  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt  4.  Chap.  4. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  6.  338. 

Fawcett's  Manual  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  10. 
George's  Progress  and  Poverty,  Bk.  6,  Chap,  i,  sec.  iv. 
Oilman's  Protit  Sharing.     See  Index,  Co-operation. 
Greeley's  Essays  on  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Holyoake  :  I.  Hist,  of  Co-operation  in  England. 

2.  The  Co-operative  Movement  To-day. 
Knight's  Knowledge  is  Power,  Chap.  27. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  640. 
Laveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  i,  Chap. 

6,  sec.  6. 

Marshall's  Economics  of  Industry,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  9. 
Mill's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  abr.  by  Laughlin,  Bk.  4,  Chap. 

5,  sec.  4-7,  pp.  523-533- 
R.  Heber  Newton's  Social  Studies,  Chap.  2-3.     Same,  Princ  , 

N.  s.,  10  201  ;  No.  Am.,  137.  327.    See  also  Social  Stuuics, 

pp.  13-17. 

Thompson's  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
A.  Walker's  Sci.  of  Wealth,  pp.  296-302. 
F.  A.  Walker:  i.  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt  6,  Chap.  3. 

2.  The  Wages  Question,  Chap.  15. 
Atlan.,  47.  207  (German  Co-operative  Credit  Unions). 
Cent,  10.  403 

Contemp.,  24.  212 ,  26.  269  (Holyoake)  ;  34.  553  ;  57.  552. 
Ed.  R  ,  120.  407  (Am.  ed.,  p.  210). 
Fortn.,  3.  477  ;  21.  190  (Fawcett). 
Harper,  73.  923. 

Nation,  2.  360  :  5.  1 1 1  ;  7.  287  ;  36.  7 ;  43.  305,  390,  537  ;  44.  526. 
I9th  Cent,  2.  283  (Cooperative  House-keeping)  ;  4.  494  (Holy- 
oake) ;  5.  362,  733  ;  15.  1037  (Eight  Years  of  Co-operative 

Shirt-making). 

No.  Am.,  106.  150  ;  14O.  41 1. 
O.  and  N.,  1.  701 ;  5.  505  ;  11.  71-72. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  17.  742. 

Quar.,  114.  418  (Am.  ed.,  p.  215).         Q.  J.  Econ.,  2.  446-447. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  12.  99,  242;  13.  60,  203;  14.  370. 
Westm.,  81.  357-383  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  167-179);  121.  430;  124. 

309;  130.  48.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  111.  351. 

For  references  on  Competition,  for  the  last  question,  see  the 
preceding  subject.  . 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  22$ 

TRADE   UNIONS. 
130.    Are  Trade  Unions  a  benefit   to  the  laboring  class  ? 

The  term  Trade  Unions  is  commonly  used  to  embrace 
associations  of  laborers,  who  have  united  for  mutual  benefit 
and  protection.  As  mutual  aid  societies  they  are  legitimate 
and  beneficent ;  and  this  point,  therefore,  is  wholly  in  their 
favor.  It  is  in  the  relation  of  the  laborer  to  the  employer 
that  the  character  and  doings  of  labor  organizations  come 
in  question.  This  relation  is  actually  and  avowedly  one  of 
antagonism ;  hence  the  chief  aim  of  Trade  Unions  is  to 
protect  its  members  from  the  wrongs  which  are  or  may  be 
inflicted  on  them  by  their  employers. 

One  of  the  principal  points  of  difference  between  labor- 
ers and  their  employers  is  that  of  wages.  This  difference 
appears  where  the  laborer  demands  a  higher  rate  of  wages 
than  his  employer  is  willing  to  pay ;  and  the  effort  of  Trade 
Unions  is,  in  some  way,  to  control  and  regulate  wages  in 
the  interest  of  the  workmen.  The  success  of  such  attempts 
must  be  considered  in  their  relation  to  the  natural  law  of 
wages,  the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  of  competition,  etc. 
The  aim  of  the  Trade  Unions  is  to  get  the  control  of  labor, 
and  in  this  way  to  get  also  the  control  of  wages.  But  in 
order  to  this  it  is  necessary  to  minimize  or  destroy  compe- 
tition in  labor ;  and  this,  it  is  evident,  means  a  monopoly  of 
labor  for  unionists.  This  monopoly,  it  is  true,  cannot  be 
made  universal  and  absolute  ;  but  it  may  exist  in  proportion 
to  the  power  possessed  and  exercised  by  the  Unions. 

From  this  arises,  in  addition  to  the  antagonism  between 
laborers  and  employers,  an  antagonism  between  union  and 
non-union  laborers.  A  collision  of  interests  may  arise  be- 
tween these  which  shall  make  them  enemies.  The  former 
will  resist,  even  with  violence,  any  interference  of  the  latter 
by  taking  their  place  as  laborers,  in  their  attempts,  as  in 
strikes,  to  coerce  employers  into  an  allowance  of  their 
demands. 


224     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

To  join  a  Union  is  to  forfeit  soms  degree  of  individual 
liberty  as  a  laborer ;  while  not  to  join  is  to  keep  one's  liberty 
with  the  danger  of  coming  into  antagonism  with  the  Union. 
And  then  there  will  come  the  question  whether  there  may 
not  be  in  association,  with  whatever  evils  may  pertain  to  it,  a 
greater  advantage,  and  even  more  liberty,  than  in  isolation. 
It  is  doubtless  much  to  be  desired  that  the  antagonism  be- 
tween employer  and  employed  should  be  diminished  rather 
than  aggravated ;  and  the  elevation  of  the  laborer,  in  the 
conscious  possession  of  his  rights,  by  raising  him  toward 
an  equality  with  his  employer,  may  contribute  to  this  end. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1886,  p.  359. 
Baker's  Monopolies  and  the  People,  Chap.  8. 
Bowen:    i.    Principles   of   Polit.  Econ.,  2d  ed.  (Bost,   1859), 
pp.  228-230. 

2.   Am.  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  7,  p.  116. 
Brassey's  Work  and  Wages,  Chap,  i,  2. 
Cairnes's  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  3,  4. 
Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  20,  Rep.  on  Trade  Societies  in 

the  U.  S.,  by  Jos.  D.  Weeks. 
Cook's  Labor,  Lect.  10,  p.  286. 
Ely  :  i.  Labor  Movement  in  Am. 

2.   Introd.  to  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  3. 
Fawcett's  Manual  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  9. 
George's  Progress  and  Poverty,  Bk.  6,  Chap,  i,  sec.  iii. 
Howell's  Conflicts  of  Labor  and  Capital,  etc. 
Jevons's  Methods  of  Social  Reform,  p.  101. 
Knight's  Knowledge  is  Power,  Chap.  25. 
Larned's  Talks  about  Labor,  pp.  94-97. 

Laveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1884),  p.  161. 
Lieber's  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  2,  Bk  4,  Chap.  3. 
McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times,  V.  2,  Chap.  54. 
Marshall's  Economics  of  Industry,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  5-7. 
Newton's  Social  Studies,  Chap,  i,  pp.  7-12. 
Price's  Prac.  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  8. 

Rogers:    i.  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages  (N.  Y.,  1884), 
pp.  400-404,  438-441.     See  Index. 

2.  Economic  Interpretation  of  Hist.,  pp.  313-317. 
Roscher's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  1878),  2.  86-90. 
Sturtevant's  Economics,  pp.  163-167. 
J.  P.  Thompson's  Workman,  Chap.  8. 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  22$ 

Robert  E.  Thompson's  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  132-136. 

Thornton  on  Labor  (Lond.,  1869).     Same,  Fortn.,  8.  477,  592, 

688  ;  9.  77,  437,  520. 

A.  Walker's  Sci.  of  Wealth,  5th  ed.,  pp.  292-294. 
F.  A.  Walker :  I.  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  6,  Chap.  5 

2.  The  Wages  Question,  pp.  396-408. 
Wayland's  Polit.  Econ.,  recast  by  Chapin  (N.  Y.,  1878,)  pp.  176- 

178. 

Atlan.,  39.  278. 

Blackw.,  35.  331 ;  43.  281;  101.  718 ;  102.  487;  107.  554,  744. 
Chr.  Union,  38.  117  (1888,  Aug.  2). 
Contemp.,  30.  598,  833;  44.  331. 
Ed.  R.,  59,  341  ;  67.  209  (Am.  ed.,  p.  no);  110.  525  (Am.  ed., 

p.  268);  130.  390  (Am.  ed.,  p.  198),  Ans.  to  Thornton  on 

Labor. 

Fortn.,  1.  753-756;  3.  33;  8.  I  ;  12.  30;  32.  261. 
Nation,  5.  93 ;  37.  289,  428. 

1 9th  Cent.jjd^B;  26.  721. 

No.  Am.j^^B8  (Powderly);  140.  48;  149.  413  (Tyranny  of 

Lai^^l  Einizations). 
No.  BriMBTi ;  48.  i  ;  53.  59. 
O.  and  m^.  216;  11.  69. 
Polit.   Sci.  Q.,  2.  274  (The  Benefit  Features  of  Am.  Trades 

Unions). 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  8.  586. 
Quar,  123.  351 ;  136.  179  (Am.  ed.,  p.  94),  The  Despotism  of 

the  Future. 
Westm.,  76.  510  (Am.  ed.,  p.  275). 


STRIKES. 

131.  Are  Strikes  right  ? 

132.  Are  Strikes  a  benefit,  on  the   whole,  to  the   laboring 

class  ? 

The  subject  of  Strikes  has  a  close  connection  with  that 
of  Trade  Unions,  and  they  are  commonly  treated  together. 
Strikes  are  the  means  employed  by  Trade  Unions  to  enforce 
their  demand  of  some  benefit  for  their  members ;  which, 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  is  either  an  increase  of  wages 
or  the  prevention  of  a  threatened  decrease.  A  strike  is  a 


226      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

rupture  of  the  outward  harmony,  and  a  disclosure  of  the 
real  antagonism,  between  the  employer  and  the  employed. 
It  is  a  revolt  of  the  workmen,  resulting  in  open  war.  It  is 
a  contest  waged  for  victory,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
workmen  have  suffered  defeat. 

In  order  to  determine  the  justifiableness  of  a  strike  two 
things  must  be  considered :  the  justice  and  importance  of 
the  end  sought,  and  the  rightfulness  and  expediency  of  the 
strike  as  a  means  for  promoting  the  end.  By  these  tests 
any  particular  strike  may  be  tried.  Some  general  hints  may, 
however,  be  given,  which  will  throw  light  on  strikes  as  a 
whole,  and  help  in  judging  of  particular  instances. 

The  general  end  of  strikes,  concealed  under  any  partic- 
ular end,  is  the  independence  of  the  laborers ;  so  that  they 
shall  be  treated  in  no  sense  or  degree  as  slaves,  but  as  men, 
having  rights  which  make  them  the  equal  ^fcdieir  employ- 
ers, and  which  give  them  the  control  of  t^^Akes  and  of 
their  labor.  How  far  this  general  end  is  *^^H  in  or 
promoted  by  any  particular  strike,  or  indeed  V  Bikes  in 
general,  must  be  determined  by  examination. 

As  to  the  strike  itself,  like  all  wars,  it  must  be  the  last 
resort.  This  is  so,  not  only  from  its  nature  as  extreme,  and 
as  that  which  must  determine  the  issue  of  the  contest,  but 
also  because  of  the  large  pecuniary  loss  implied  in  it,  in 
most  cases  even  to  the  laborers  themselves.  Right  here  is 
found  the  gist  of  the  question,  whether  the  unseen  and  in- 
calculable benefits  produced  by  strikes  furnish  an  adequate 
compensation  for  its  many  and  great  seen  and  calculable 
evils.  Considered  in  itself,  and  in  its  immediate  and  pal- 
pable results,  its  condemnation  seems  inevitable.  Its  justi- 
fication must  be  looked  for  in  its  efficiency  as  a  means  ol 
progress  in  the  contest  of  labor  with  capital. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1877,  p.  423;  1882,  pp.  453-457,  614;  1887, 
pp.  742-751. 

Baker's  Monopolies  and  the  People,  pp.  180,  257-258. 

Bowen's  Am.  Polit.  Econ.,  Chap.  7,  pp.  113-115. 

Cairnes's  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  225-227. 

Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  20,  Rep.  on  Strikes  and  Lock- 
outs occurring  in  the  U.  S.  during  1880,  by  Jos.  D.  Weeks. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  22/ 

rhird  An.   Rep.  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  1887,  Strikes 

and  Lockouts. 

Rep.  of  the  Mass.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1880. 
^ep.  of  the  Penn.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1882. 
Sly's  Labor  Movement  in  Am.     See  Index, 
^awcett's  Manual  of  Polit.  Econ.  (3d  ed.),  pp.  232-236. 
jeorge's  Progress  and  Poverty,  pp.  281-284. 
3reeley's  Essays  in  Polit.  Econ.,  p.  93. 
.alor's  Cyc.  of' Polit.  Sci.,  3.  815. 
^arned's  Talks  about  Labor,  pp.  89-92. 

^aveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  6,  sec.  9. 
STewcomb's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  386-387. 
Newton's  Social  Studies,  pp.  8-9. 
Berry's  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  240-245. 
^rice's  Prac.  Polit.  Econ.  (Lond.),  pp.  277-289. 
Rogers  :  I.  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages  (N.  Y.,  1884), 

p.  41 1. 
2.  The  Economic  Interpretation  of  Hist.,  p.  315. 

of  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  sec.  176-177. 
mics,  pp.  160-162. 
Workman,  Chap.  8. 
pson's  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  133-134. 

1.  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  368-373. 

2.  The  Wages  Question,  Chap.  19,  pp.  387-396, 

also  pp.  30-3 1 . 

\nd.  R.,  6.  475 ;  12.  422  (The  London  Strike). 
Vtlan.,  58.  98,  iio-iu. 
31ackw.,  79.  52. 

Brit.  Q.,  58.  336  (Am.  ed.,  p.  181). 
"ent.,  9.  946. 

rhr.  Union,  1888,  May  10,  p.  582. 
id.  R.,  59.  241  ;  67.  209  (Am.  ed.,  p.  no);  110.  525  (Am.  ed., 

p.  268). 

rortn.,  1.  742 ;  11.  622. 
nclependent,  1890,  Oct.  2,  pp.  1-5,  14. 
Nation,  2.  777;  42.359,376;  49.  187;  50.  172  (The  London 

Strike). 

^evv.  Eng.,  50.  324. 
*o.  Am.,  125.  322,  351  ;  149.  385. 
2uar.,  106.  485  (Am.  ed.,  p.  267) ;  146.  485  (Am.  ed.,  p.  258). 

61.   119  (Am.  ed.,  p.  64);    74.  i;    81.  349  (Am.  ed., 

P- 


228      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


MACHINERY  AND  THE   LABORING  CLASS. 

133.    Has  the  use  of  machinery  been,  on  the  whole,  beneficial 
to  the  laboring  class  ? 

The  wonderful  material  progress  of  modern  times  is 
largely  due  to  the  invention  and  general  use  of  machinery. 
Li  there,  accompanying  this  vast  beneficent  effect  of  the 
employment  of  machinery,  any  evil  result  ?  What  has  been 
its  influence  on  labor  and  the  laborer  ? 

It  is  inevitable  that  it  should  work  a  radical  revolution  in 
labor;  but  has  it  diminished  the  opportunity  or  the  de- 
mand for  it?  It  has  changed  the  form  of  labor;  but  is 
the  demand  for  it  less  than  when  it  was  informed  chiefly 
by  hand  ?  Both  the  power  of  production  ^^K^  facility  of 
distribution  have  been  immensely  increasl^H»ie  use  of 
machinery,  yet  the  demand  keeps  even  w^lBe  vastly 
augmented  supply ;  so  that  loss  of  employme^^  the  in- 
troduction of  machinery  is  but  temporary.  Wages  there- 
fore, it  is  claimed,  have  not  only  not  diminished,  but  have 
even  increased. 

The  cheapening  of  production,  together  with  its  great 
increase,  produced  by  the  use  of  machinery,  has  brought 
about  a  general  augmentation  of  material  comfort,  and  in 
this  laborers  as  a  class  have  shared.  But  here  emerges 
another  question.  The  immense  economic  force  intro- 
duced by  machinery  is  held  and  controlled  by  capitalists 
in  their  own  interest,  for  the  increase  of  their  wealth  and 
power.  The  laborers  are  still  laborers,  while  their  masters 
have  grown  greatly  in  power.  Is  the  inequality,  then,  be- 
tween these  classes  rather  increased  than  lessened?  On 
the  other  hand,  are  the  good  effects  of  the  use  of  machin- 
ery, as  already  intimated,  universal,  reaching  all  classes,  — 
so  that,  as  some  have  claimed,  it  is  in  its  influence  demo- 
cratic, in  that  it  is  gradually  lifting  the  lower  classes 
upward  toward  the  higher? 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 

Sastiat's  Essays  on  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  1877),  Chap.  8,  p.  117 

(That  which  is  seen,  and  that  which  is  not  seen). 
Blanqui's  Hist,  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index. 
Srassey's  Work  and  Wages,  Chap.  5. 

lenry  George:   i.  Progress  and  Poverty,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  3.    See 
Index,  Inventions. 

2.  Social  Problems,  Chap.  14. 

3.  Protection  or  Free  Trade,  Chap.  24. 
Cnight's  Knowledge  is  Power,  Chap   10. 

.alor's  Cyc   of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  792. 

.otze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  i,  2.  386-391. 

.arned's  Talks  about  Labor,  pp.  102-121. 

.aveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1884),  pp. 

89-98. 
Marshall's  Principles  of  Economics  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1891), 

2ded.,  1.  570-571- 
rtcCulloch's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  4th  ed.  (Edin.,  1849), 

Pt.  i,  Chap.  7.     Also  see  Index. 
Carl  Marx's  Capital,  V.  2,  Chap.  15. 
<Jewcomb's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  8. 
Newton's  Social  Studies,  pp.  58-60. 
'erry's  PolTt.  Econ.,  pp.  310-311. 
Ucardo's   Works:    Principles   of    Polit.  Econ.  and   Taxation, 

Chap.  31. 

togers's  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages  (N.  Y.),  pp.  495-500. 
£.  P.  Smith's  Manual  of  Polit.  Econ.  (Philad.,  1872),  pp.  137- 

138. 

iturtevant's  Economics,  sec.  126-128. 
.  P.  Thompson's  Workman,  pp.  92-97. 
Robert  E.  Thompson's  Polit  Econ.     See  Index. 
Valker's  Wages  Question,  p.  189. 
Jhr.  Exam.,  87.  319. 
Jo.  Am.,  34.  220. 
Vestm.,  5.  101  ;  14.  191. 


DIVISION    OF   LABOR   AND    INDIVIDUAL 
DEVELOPMENT. 

34.    Does  the  division  of  labor,  as  it  now  exists,  tend  rather 
to  hinder  than  to  help  individual  development  ? 

Of  the  great  economical  advantage  of  a  division  of  labor 
here  can  be  no  question.    For  it  is  really  a  combination  of 


230     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

labor,  or  the  concurrence  of  many  in  the  production  either 
of  one  or  of  various  things ;  hence  production  is  thereby 
greatly  augmented.  Indeed,  division  of  labor  is  a  necessary 
accompaniment  and  condition  of  increasing  civilization. 
It  implies  a  concentration  of  mind  and  constant  repetition 
of  effort  which  give  facility  of  performance. 

On  the  other  hand,  does  not  the  mind  require  variety? 
And  does  not  sameness  become  monotonous  and  a  drudg- 
ery? The  same  thing  continually  repeated  grows  mechani- 
cal ;  yet  such  almost  unconscious  effort  leaves  the  mind 
free  for  higher  thought. 

The  greater  production,  plenty,  and  cheapness  attendant 
on  the  use  of  machinery  and  the  division  of  labor  inure 
to  the  general  benefit  of  the  laborer,  especially  by  the  in- 
crease of  his  material  comfort,  by  adding  to  his  leisure, 
and  by  affording  him  larger  opportunities  for  improvement. 
Hence  the  loss  of  mental  stimulus  from  the  nature  of  his 
employment  may,  in  another  way,  be  more  than  made  up. 
This  will,  however,  depend  on  himself,  and  on  his  higher 
aspirations;  while  it  is  true  that  one's  daily  employment 
has  much  influence  on  his  mind. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Economics  (Bost..  1889),  sec.  43-45. 

Bowen's  Am.  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  Chap.  3. 

Fawcett's  Man.  of  Polit.  Econ.,  6th  ed.,  pp.  50-57. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  819. 

Laveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.   Econ.,  trans.,   Bk.  2,  Chap.  3, 

sec.  17. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  i,  2.  388-3.^0. 
MacLeod's  Elements  of  Economics,  V.  2,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  10,  sec. 

14-17- 
Marshall:  I.  Economics  of  Industry,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  8. 

2.  Principles   of   Economics,   2d    ed.,  V.    i,  Ek.  4, 

Chap.  9. 
Mill :  i.  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  i ,  P.k.  i.  Chnp.  8.  sec.  4-6. 

2.  Same,  abr.  by  Lau^hlin.  Bk.  i    Chap.  6,  sec.  2-3. 
Newcomb's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  6,  sec.  37. 
Perry:  I.  Introd.  to  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  115-121. 

2.  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  186-190. 

Roscher's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  trans.,  V.  i,  Bk.  i,  Chap. 
3.  sec.  56-63. 


OF  THE 

NIVERS1TY  f 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  2$  I 


Say's  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  8. 

Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  1-3. 

Sturtevant's  Economics,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  4. 

A.  Walker's  Sci.  of  Wealth,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  2-5. 

F.  A.  Walker's  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  56-62. 

Wayland's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  recast  by  Chapin  (N.  Y., 

1878),  Chap.  6. 
1 9th  Cent,  5.  553-554- 
No.  Am.,  127.  261-265. 


USURY   LAWS. 
135.   Should  usury  laws  be  repealed? 

Usury  laws  are  such  as  have  for  their  aim  the  prevention 
of  the  taking  of  usury ;  and  consist  in  the  establishing  of 
a  certain  fixed  rate  of  interest  as  legal,  all  above  this  being 
made  illegal,  or  usury.  These  laws,  therefore,  undertake  to 
regulate  or  restrict  the  rate  of  interest.  But  it  is  urged  that 
this  rate  should  be  left  free,  to  be  determined  according  to 
circumstances  by  the  natural  economic  law  of  supply  and 
demand.  This  view,  since  it  has  especial  respect  to  the 
use  of  money  as  the  medium  of  exchange  in  commercial 
transactions,  may  be  called  the  commercial  mew,  and  is  re- 
garded by  its  supporters  as  a  conclusive  argument  for  the 
abolition  of  all  restrictive  laws  concerning  interest. 

Another  view  might  be  called  the  moral  view.  This  has 
particular  respect  to  the  facility  with  which  the  needy  bor- 
rower might  be  ruined  by  the  exorbitant  exactions  of  the 
pitiless  lender ;  and  the  chief  end  of  usury  laws,  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  would  be  the  protection  of  the  former  from 
the  rapacity  of  the  latter.  The  question  then  would  be 
how  far  such  laws  do  or  can  afford  the  requisite  protection. 
They  can  be,  and  are,  evaded.  Yet  the  question  recurs, 
Should  these  exorbitant  exactions  be  recognized  by  the 
law?  If  so,  it  would  seem  that  usury  laws  of  some  kind 
are  not  only  justifiable,  but  necessary. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  230. 

Bastiat's  Essays  on  Polit.  Econ.  (N.  Y.,  1877),  pp.  8,  48. 


232       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Bentham's  Defence  of  Usury. 

Blanqui's  Hist,  of  Polit.  Econ.     See  Index,  Interest,  Usury. 

Disraeli's  Curiosities  of  Lit.,  2.  332. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  13,  188;  24.  17. 

Greeley's  Essays  in  Polit.  Econ.,  pp.  69-71. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  Interest,  2.  1238-1240. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  2.  546  (Gives  a  full  Bibliography  of 

the  subject);  3.  1042. 

Laveleye's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  9. 
McCulloch's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  8. 
Marshall's  Economics  of  Industry,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  10. 
Mill's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  10,  sec.  2. 
Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  the  Laws.     See  Index. 
Roscher's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations.     See  Index,  Interest. 
Walker's  Polit.  Econ.,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  3;  Pt.  6,  Chap.  I. 
Bentley,  30.  275,  375.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  24.  345,  455. 
Contemp  ,  37.  316  (Ruskin). 
Cornh.,  9.  75. 
Ed.  R.,  27.  339. 
Hunt,  2.  24,  387;  3.  516;  9.  243;  23.  508;  31.  704;  32.  185; 

34.  310. 

Independent,  1891,  Sept.  10,  p.  21. 
No.  Am.,  39.  68. 
Quar.,  33.  186. 


WOMAN'S   WAGES. 

136.  For  work  the  same  in  kind,  quantity,  and  quality >,  should 

woman  receive  the  same  wages  as  man  ? 

137.  Should  woman  receive  the  same  wages  as  man  for  work 

or  service  of  equal  value  ? 

These  questions  seem,  in  form,  to  pertain  rather  to  ethics 
than  to  economics.  The  economic  question  would  be,  why 
the  wages  of  women  are  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  equal  to 
those  of  men ;  the  ethical  question,  ought  women,  for  work 
of  equal  value,  to  receive  wages  equal  to  the  wages  of  men. 
The  consideration  of  the  latter  requires  the  consideration 
of  the  former ;  yet  the  decision  of  the  former  does  not 
necessarily  include  the  decision  of  the  latter. 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY.  233 

The  latter  question  does  not  cover  the  whole  of  woman's 
work,  but  only  that  part  in  which  she  is  actually  the  equal 
of  man.  Let  it  be  granted  that  in  the  world  of  work  as  a 
whole  she  not  only  is  not,  but,  from  the  limitation  of  her 
nature  and  her  sphere,  can  never  become,  the  equal  of  man, 
this  can  in  no  wise  affect  the  question  ;  which  is,  that  if  in 
anything  she  is  equal  to  man,  should  she  for  this  be  made 
equal  in  wages?  Should  a  woman,  simply  because  she  is  a 
woman,  be  treated,  in  that  in  which  she  is  equal  to  man, 
as  his  inferior? 

The  part  of  the  negative  is  to  show  that  the  present  state 
of  woman's  work  and  wages  corresponds  to  her  nature  and 
position,  and  that  therefore  it  is  what  ought  to  be  as  well  as 
what  is;  while  it  is  the  part  of  the  affirmative  to  show 
that  there  should  be  an  improvement  in  the  proportion  of 
her  wages  to  her  work,  —  that  in  the  proportion  that  in 
anything  she  approximates  man  in  the  value  of  her  work 
she  should  also  approximate  him  in  the  rate  of  her  wages. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Chr.  Union.,  1888,  Apr.  26,  p.  516. 
Forum,  2.  201,  206,  210. 

No.  Am.,  135.  433.     Same,  Woman's  Jour.,  13.  337-338. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  23.  388.     Same,  Woman's  Jour.,  14.  201-202,  210. 
Woman's  Jour.,  1.  84,  114,  225,  346;  2.  218;  5.  22,  152,  230; 
7.  122;  11.  350;  13.  236;  15.  88,  216,  232;  16.  412. 

NEGATIVE. 

Bowen's  Principles  of  Polit.  Econ.  (2d  ed.,  Bost.,  1859),  p.  236. 

Fairchild's  Mor.  Philos.  (1869),  p.  251. 

Sturtevant's  Economics,  sec.  137-139. 

Thompson's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  sec.  141. 

Walker's  Wages  Question,  pp.  372-384. 

Wayland's  Elements  of  Polit.  Econ.,  recast  by  Chapin  (N.  Y., 

1878),  pp.  190-196. 
Forum,  2.  203,  208. 
No.  Am.,  135.  146.     Same,  Woman's  Jour.,  13.  233-235.    Ans., 

Ib.,  p.  236. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  1.  107.     Ans.,  Woman's  Jour.,  1.  346. 


234      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


V.     EDUCATION. 

EDUCATION  may  be  considered  in  two  aspects, 
as  subjective  and  objective.  In  its  subjective 
aspect  it  is  the  development  and  discipline  of  the 
mind ;  in  its  objective  aspect  it  is  the  acquisition  of 
the  various  knowledge  of  which  the  mind  is  capable. 
Putting  the  two  together,  it  becomes  the  development 
of  the  mind,  by  the  exercise  of  its  powers,  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge;  or,  it  is  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  which  produces  as  a  result  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mind. 

These  are  both  ends,  one  not  less  than  the  other, 
though  each  in  its  own  way.  Knowledge  is  the  end 
actually  and  consciously  sought.  It  is  this  which  ex- 
cites the  powers  of  the  mind  to  their  utmost  for  its 
attainment;  and  this  varied  and  sustained  activity 
results  in  their  development.  Knowledge  is  an  end 
in  itself;  and  it  likewise  is  both  subjective  and  ob- 
jective, comprising  the  act  of  knowing  and  the  thing 
known.  In  its  knowing  the  mind  goes  out  of  itself 
and  becomes  one  with  the  things  it  knows,  takes 
them  into  itself  and  makes  them  one  with  itself. 
Thus  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  better  expresses 
the  aim  and  end  of  education  than  mental  develop- 
ment. It  shows  that  education  is  more  than  mere 
mental  gymnastics,  or  an  exercise  of  the  mind  for 
the  sake  of  exercise,  or  even  for  the  sake  of  in- 
creased strength  and  activity. 

Mental  development  individualises  education ;  that 
is,  it  shows  it  in  its  relation  to  the  individual  subject 


EDUCATION.  235 

It  may,  indeed,  be  used  in  its  general  application  to 
all  minds ;  but  used  as  applied  to  the  actual  it  has 
respect  to  individual  minds  in  their  particular  develop- 
ment. This  individual  aspect  of  education  finds  its 
application  in  many  practical  ways.  As  individual, 
education  is  not  fixed  and  uniform,  but  is  as  varied 
as  the  various  minds  which  are  its  subjects.  Each 
mind  adapts  its  education  to  itself;  and  it  is  the 
part  of  the  teacher  to  have  continual  respect  to 
the  individuality  of  his  pupils. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge implies  the  comprehensiveness  of  education ;  for 
knowledge  is  as  wide  as  the  universe,  and  the  human 
mind  is  adapted  to  it  in  its  vast  extent  and  infinite 
variety.  In  theory  a  liberal  education  is  compre- 
hensive, embracing  in  its  scope  the  elements  of 
all  kinds  of  knowledge ;  yet  in  fact,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  case,  it  can  be  but  partial  and  meagre, 
the  mind  reaching  out  in  many  directions  toward 
the  infinite. 

Education  develops  the  mind,  together  with  its  self- 
consciousness  ;  in  furnishing  it  with  the  knowledge  of 
all  things  gives  it  the  true  knowledge  of  itself;  con- 
fers upon  it  the  power  of  self-command,  so  that  it  can 
control,  direct,  and  use  itself;  develops  its  power 
of  thought,  so  that  it  brings  forth  from  its  depths 
thoughts  which  have  there  grown  into  life;  gives  it 
the  power  of  expression,  by  which  it  incarnates  its 
thoughts,  makes  them  definite  and  effective,  commu- 
nicates them  to  others,  and  starts  them  on  a  career 
of  their  own  independent  of  itself;  makes  the  mind 
the  man,  free,  regal,  and  conqueror  of  all  things; 
transforms  the  world  of  things  into  a  world  of  thought, 
and  gives  thought  power  to  dissolve  all  things  and  to 
re-create  them  in  its  own  likeness. 


236      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


INTELLIGENCE   AND   MORALITY. 

138.  Does    the  diffusion   of   intelligence    promote   general 

morality  ? 

139.  Is   ignorance  productive  of  crime  ? 

These  questions  imply  the  relation  between  knowledge 
and  goodness,  or  the  influence  or  tendency  of  knowledge 
to  produce  morality.  It  is  the  old  question,  discussed  by 
Socrates,  of  knowledge  and  virtue. 

Much  of  knowledge  has  no  direct  relation  to  morality. 
But  knowledge  of  morality  does  not  necessarily  lead  to  its 
practice.  Few,  if  any,  do  as  well  as  they  know ;  and  nothing 
is  more  common  than  for  men  to  know  and  approve  the 
good  and  follow  the  bad.  But  this  does  not  prove  that  in- 
telligence has  no  influence  to  promote  morality,  but  only  that 
its  influence  is  not  always  sure  and  effectual. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  statistics  of  crime  show  that  the 
large  proportion  of  criminals  are  ignorant ;  yet  how  much 
their  crimes  may  be  due  to  ignorance,  and  how  much  to 
other  causes,  does  not  seem  clear.  Such  facts  would  at  least 
seem  to  furnish  a  presumption  that  ignorance  is  not  without 
influence  in  leading  to  crime. 

Alison :  i.  Hist,  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  5,  Chap,  i,  sec. 
47-49,  pp.  14-16;   V.  7,  Chap.  27,  sec.  IO-H,  p.  5 
(Education  does  not  prevent  Crime). 
2.  Miscellaneous  Essays  :  The  Future.    Mod.  Brit.  Es- 
sayists (Philad.),  2.  357. 
Boutwell's  Thoughts  on  Educational  Topics  and  Institutions, 

p.  48. 

Christian  Educators  in  Council,  1883,  pp.  83,  87. 
Rep.  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1871,  pp.  32-36,  548-552 ; 
1872,  pp.  586-595  (Mansfield);    1873,  pp.  clxxiii-clxxv ; 
1874.  pp.  cx-cxx. 
Dick's  Improvement  of  Society  by  the  Diffusion  of  Knowledge, 

sec   7  (Works,  V.  i). 

Everett :  Orations,  1.  627.     Same,  Practical  Education,  p.  242. 
Foster's  Essay  on  Popular  Ignorance,  sec.  4. 


ED  UCA  TION.  237 

S.  M.  Green's  Crime  (Philad.,  1889),  Art.  2,  Chap.  5;  Art.  4, 

Chap.  i. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  193. 
Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  Chap.  2. 
Spencer's  Social  Statics,  Chap.  26,  sec.  9. 
Cuth.  World,  22.  721-727. 
Chr.  R.,  8.  514. 

Ed.  R.,  86.  521  (Am.  ed.,  p.  275). 
Independent,  1883,  Aug.  30,  p.  5. 
No.  Am.,  47.  293-300. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  6.  186. 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION. 
140.    Should  education  in  the  public  schools  be  compulsory  1 

Compulsory  education,  it  is  evident,  is  supplementary  to 
that  which  is  voluntary,  its  purpose  being  to  make  educa- 
tion universal.  To  effect  this  necessary  end,  parents  who 
neglect  the  education  of  their  children  are  required  by  law 
to  see  that  they  receive  the  education  offered  by  the  state. 
Compulsory  attendance  at  school  would,  therefore,  seem  to 
be  justified  in  its  end,  —  that  universal  intelligence  which 
promotes  the  general  security  and  welfare. 

Whether  in  making  and  enforcing  such  a  law  the  state 
does  not  exceed  its  legitimate  function  may  be  made  the 
first  issue  in  the  discussion.  But  if  legitimate,  is  it  expe- 
dient ?  Compulsion,  direct  and  strict,  is,  from  its  nature, 
more  or  less  odious.  Does  necessity,  in  this  case  re- 
quire it? 

Is  a  compulsory  law  generally  efficient  in  the  promotion 
of  the  end  sought?  Its  efficiency,  it  is  evident,  will  be  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  degree  of  its  enforcement.  What 
are  the  probabilities  that  it  will  be  generally  and  strictly  en- 
forced? And  what  are  the  facts,  where  it  has  been  tried, 
respecting  its  enforcement,  together  with  the  results  ? 

Francis  Adams's  Free   School   System  of  the  U.  S.   (Lond., 

1875),  pp.  122-143. 
Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1871,  pp. 

220-228 ;  1872,  p.  54. 


238      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  See  Index,  Com- 
pulsory Attendance. 

Conn.  School  Rep.,  1875,  pp.  26-50 ;  1878,  pp.  30-32. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  164. 

N.  H.  School  Rep.,  1876,  p.  368. 

B.  G.  Northrup's  Education  Abroad,  and  Other  Papers  (N.  Y., 
1873),  P-  77- 

Rep.  of  the  State  Sup.  of  Public  Instruction  in  Wis.,  1874. 

Chr.  Union,  189O,  Jan.  30,  p.  152. 

Fortn.,  9.  570;  14.  103;  25.  897. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1875,  June  3,  p.  i ;  June  10,  p.  4;  1883, 
Aug.  30,  p.  5. 

Nation,  5.  191 ,  21.  55. 

VVestm.,  91.  458  (Am.  ed.,  p.  213);  92.  550  (Am.  ed.,  p.  261). 


NATIONAL  AID   TO   EDUCATION. 
141.    Is  national  aid  to  education  necessary  and  desirable? 

The  argument  for  national  aid  to  education  is  simple  and 
forcible.  It  is  based  on  the  extent  of  illiteracy,  and  the 
importance  to  the  nation  of  the  general  diffusion  of  intelli- 
gence. It  has,  indeed,  been  left  to  the  States  to  provide 
for  education,  each  within  its  own  limits.  But  the  States 
are  severally  parts  of  the  Union ;  and  the  whole  feels  the 
effect  of  what  is  done,  or  is  not  done,  in  its  parts.  Hence, 
since  citizens  of  the  States  are  likewise  citizens  of  the  Union, 
education  is  a  national  interest.  From  this  it  would  seem 
to  follow  that,  if  any  States  are  unable  adequately  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  of  its  citizens,  the  nation  through  the 
Federal  Government  should  aid  them.  Several  advocates  of 
the  strict  construction  of  the  Constitution  have  objected  to 
this,  that  such  action  would  exceed  the  prerogative  of  the 
Federal  Government,  and  be  unconstitutional. 

But  an  objection  which  has  had  more  practical  weight 
and  has  seemed  to  produce  a  considerable  change  of  opinion 
is,  that,  by  discouraging  self-reliance,  national  aid  would  be 
rather  injurious  than  helpful ;  that  the  States  where  illiteracy 
most  abounds,  if  left  to  themselves,  can  and  will  make  pro- 
vision to  obliterate  it ;  and  that  it  is  better,  both  for  them- 


EDUCATION.  239 

selves  and  for  the  nation,  that  they  should  be  left  to  do 
their  own  work  unaided.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  plain 
why  national  aid,  wisely  administered,  should  be  more  in- 
jurious than  private  aid,  like  the  Peabody  Fund,  given  for  a 
similar  end. 

For  a  full  discussion  of  this  question  see 
Cong.  Globe,  42d  Cong.  2d  Sess.,  Pt.  i. 

Cong.  Record,  V.  15,  Pt.  2  and  3,  48th  Cong.  1st  Ses".;  V.  17, 
49th  Cong,  ist  Sess. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Cong.  Rec.,  V.  15,  48th  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  Pt.  2  and  3,  pp.  1999- 

2032  (Blair's  Speech);   V.  19,  soth   Cong,  rst  Sess.,  pp. 

266  (Bill),  268  (Rep.  of  Com.),  511,  512  (Blair),  542,  625, 

734,  739  (Blair),  835  (Evarts),  868,  907,  1046,  1223  (Bill 

passed). 

Cable's  Negro  Question  (N.  Y.,  1890),  p.  59. 
Garfield's  Works,  2.  19.     Same,  Garfield  and  Education,  p.  215. 
And.  R.,  5.  250. 
Independent  (N.Y.),  1883,  Mar.  r,  p.  5  ;  July  12,  p.  I.     1884, 

Apr.  17,  p.  1 6.     1885,  Jan.  29,  p.  16.    1888,  Feb.  23,  p.  1 1 ; 

1889,  Aug.  29,  pp.  2-5,  8,  9,  10,  12.    1890,  Feb.  13,  p.  n  ; 

Mar.  13,  p.  i. 
Nation,  14.  133. 
N.  Princ.,  1.  210. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  13.  215. 
Senate  Reports,  48th  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  No.  101,  Pt.  2. 

NEGATIVE. 

Cong.  Rec.,  V.  19,  soth  Cong,  ist  Sess.,  pp.  296,  347,  379,  445, 

790,  1212. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1889,  Aug.  29,  pp.  3,  4,  5. 
Nation,  42.  51,  121,  142,  184,  207 ;  46.  5,  148;  49.  84,  186. 
No.  Am.,  142.  381. 

THE   BIBLE   AND    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 

142.    Should  the  Bible  be  read,  as  a  religious  exercise,  in  the 
public  schools  ? 

This  question  implies  the  larger  one  of  religion  and  the . 
State.     In  this  country  the  State,  in  theory,  is  secular  or 


240      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKEltS. 

non-religious;  yet  in  fact  it  cannot  be  utterly  devoid  of 
religion.  In  its  ethical  aspect  it  is  intimately  related  to  re- 
ligion, the  very  essence  of  which  is  moral ;  and  it  is  evident 
that  religion,  which  so  profoundly  affects  the  life  of  its  citi- 
zens, must  be  an  influential  element  in  the  State. 

Christianity  has  exerted  a  controlling  influence  on  the 
governments  of  Christian  nations,  so  that  it  is  proper  to  call 
them  Christian.  Moreover,  the  governments  of  Christian 
nations  receive  largely  their  character  from  the  prevailing 
type  of  Christianity,  whether  Catholic  or  Protestant.  Our 
government,  then,  is  Protestant- Christian.  This  means,  not 
that  it  favors  Protestantism  more  than  Catholicism  ;  but  that 
its  character,  since  it  has  been  formed  under  the  prepon- 
derating influence  of  the  former,  is  rather  Protestant  than 
Catholic.  Of  this  character  one  feature  is  the  guaranty  to 
all  its  citizens  of  religious  freedom ;  which  implies  that  all 
religions  shall  enjoy  entire  and  equal  freedom. 

In  this  brief  and  comprehensive  statement  may  be  found 
the  grounds,  on  the  one  side,  for  reading,  and,  on  the  other, 
for  not  reading  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools.  Education 
cannot  be,  any  more  than  government,  kept  independent  of 
religion.  Hence  the  education  of  this  country  is  Christian, 
and  chiefly  Protestant-Christian  ;  that  is,  it  is  under  a  pre- 
dominant Christian  influence,  from  which  it  takes  its  char- 
acter. But  of  Christianity,  and  especially  of  Protestant 
Christianity,  the  Bible  is  the  original  and  authoritative 
source.  What,  then,  is  more  natural  than  that,  in  a  Pro- 
testant nation,  this  should  be  read  as  a  religious  exercise  in 
its  schools?  But  the  public  schools  are  State  institutions, 
being  established  by  law  and  supported  by  a  general  tax. 
Is  not  this,  then,  a  plain  case  of  the  intrusion  of  religion 
into  the  State  ?  In  all  cases  in  which  no  objection  is  made 
it  may  be  allowed ;  but  in  cases  in  which  it  meets  opposi- 
tion it  would  seem  to  be  a  violation  of  religious  freedom, 
or  an  attempt  to  force  religion  on  unwilling  minds. 

Francis  Adams's  Free  School  System  of  the  U.  S.  (Lond.,  1875), 

pp.  150-154. 
The  Bible  in  the  Public  Schools :   Arguments  in  the  Case  of 


EDUCATION.  241 

John  D.  Miner  et  al.  v.  The  Board  of  Education  of  Cincin- 
nati (Arguments  by  the  Counsel,  and  the  Decisions  of  the 
Judges,  on  both  sides). 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  pp.  83-84. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Am.  Annals  of  Educ.  (Bost.,  1833),  3.  112. 

Huxley's  Critiques  and  Addresses  (N.  Y.,  1873),  PP-  49~5°- 

Bib.  Sac.,  13.  725 ;  46.  543. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1879,  Mar.  6,  p.  5  (Cook).  - 

New  Eng.,  29.  496. 

No.  Am.,  132.  211. 

Quar.,  132.  509  (Am.  ed.,  p.  267). 

NEGATIVE. 

Spear's  Religion  and  the  State,  esp.  Chap.  7. 
Forum,  2.  599. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1876,  Jan.  27,  p.  i ;  Feb.  10,  p.  4  (Spear)  ; 
Feb.  17,  p.  4;  Feb.  24,  p.  2  (Spear).     1890,  June  19,  p.  n. 
Nation,  9.  430;  10.  219. 
New  Eng.,  32.  201. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  1.  361  (Spear). 


EMULATION   IN   EDUCATION. 
143.  Should  emulation  be  employed  as  a  motive  in  education  f 

Emulation  is  a  principle  of  human  nature,  and  finds  oc- 
casion for  exercise  in  all  the  various  relations  of  men.  It 
has  its  good  and  its  evil  side,  and  the  good  may  easily  pass 
into  the  evil. 

To  use  it  as  a  motive  for  study  is  to  make  it  a  part  of 
the  education,  that  is,  to  develop  and  cherish  it.  On  some 
minds  its  influence  is  strong ;  but  its  action  is  unequal,  and 
such  as  most  need  stimulus  are  least  affected  by  it.  It  is, 
at  the  best,  a  selfish  motive,  and  its  influence  cannot  be  said 
to  be  always  wholesome.  Whether  it  is  possible,  or  even 
desirable,  always  to  repress  its  action  as  a  motive  for  study, 
is  at  least  doubtful ;  but  to  what  extent  it  should  be  encour- 
aged may  also  be  a  question. 

16 


242       REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Undoubtedly  the  stimulus  to  study  which  is  in  every  way 
best  is  the  interest  of  the  pupil  in  the  subject  of  study. 
To  excite,  maintain,  and  increase  such  an  interest  is  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  and  the  degree  of  his  success  marks 
also  the  degree  of  his  fitness  for  his  calling.  The  personal 
influence  of  the  teacher  should  also  act  as  an  inspiration  to 
the  pupil.  The  influence  of  higher  motives  like  these  may 
lessen  the  occasion  or  the  necessity  for  emulation. 

Bain's  Education  as  a  Science  (N.  Y.),  pp.  112-114. 

Kiddle  and  Sch era's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  260. 

Ogden's  Art  of  Teaching,  pp.  81-82. 

Potter  and  Emerson's  School  and  Schoolmaster  (N.  Y.,  1843), 

pp.  504-507- 
Seeley's  Roman  Imperialism,  and  Other  Essays,  pp.  209-215. 

Same,  Essays  on  a  Liberal  Education,  eel.  by  Farrar,  pp. 

159   ; 

Wickersham's  School  Economy,  pp.  127-145. 
Am.  Annals  of  Education,  2.  205,  354,  541,  549,  597  ;  3.  28,  75 ; 

.  1 08. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  5.  393. 
Am.  Institute  of  Instruction,  1831,  Lect.  5. 
Am.  J.  Educ.,  6.  435. 
Am.  Q.  Reg.,  5.  65. 

Chr.  Obs.,  13.  81,  151,  230,  493,  499,  569. 
No.  Am.,  43.  496. 


COLLEGE-BRED    MEN    AND    SELF-EDUCATED 
MEN. 

144.    Are  college-bred  men,  as  a  class,  superior  in  mental 
attainments  and  culture  to  self-educated  men  f 

What  study  can  do  for  a  man  depends,  first  and  most  of  all, 
on  what  he  ^is  in  himself,  on  what  he  is  capable  of  becom- 
ing. A  fool  cannot  be  made  wise,  or  a  mediocre  man  bril- 
liant. It  is  well,  then,  to  understand,  to  begin  with,  what  a 
college  training  can  and  cannot  do  for  a  man.  It  can  do 
no  more  than  bring  out,  mature,  and  perfect  that  which  is 
already  in  him.  It  cannot  confer  genius,  or  even  talent ; 
these  must  be  inborn. 


EDUCATION. 


243 


Moreover,  it  is  not  opportunities  which  make  a  man,  but 
his  use  of  them.  Hence  college  education  is  largely  self- 
education.  The  college  student  is  what  he  makes  himself, 
according  to  his  use  of  his  opportunities;  and,  do  his 
best,  he  cannot  make  himself  what  he  is  not  capable  of 
becoming. 

The  advantages  afforded  by  the  college  are  comprised  in 
a  full  and  systematic  course  of  study  and  of  training,  and  in 
the  help  and  stimulus  gained  from  the  trained  and  culti- 
vated minds  of  the  teachers.  Some  who  have  never  en- 
joyed these  advantages  have  risen  to  an  intellectual  eminence 
for  above  that  of  most  college  graduates.  This  they  have 
done  by  the  force  of  native  genius,  by  the  diligent  use  of 
the  opportunities  they  have  had,  and  by  the  educating  in- 
fluence of  their  circumstances.  Such  cases  show  the  best 
that  mere  self- education  can  do.  But  it  would  be  mani- 
festly unfair  to  compare  with  these  college  graduates  of  less 
native  ability.  In  these  cases  self- education  has  been  un- 
questionably a  great  success,  because  of  the  inherent  great- 
ness of  its  subjects.  Has  it  been,  even  in  their  case,  as 
great  a  success  as  a  college  education  would  have  been  ? 

COLLEGE  EDUCATION. 

Cook's  Socialism,  Lect.  3,  Prelude.  Same,  Independent,  1879, 
Feb.  6,  p.  6. 

Samuel   W.  Fisher's  Sermons  and  Addresses,  No.  i. 

Garfield's  Works,  1.  265.  Same,  Hinsdale's  Garfield  and  Edu- 
cation, p.  277.  Same,  Library  Mag.,  6.  9. 

Olin's  College  Life :  its  Theory  and  Practice. 

Thwing's  Am.  Colleges,  Chap.  10.  Same,  in  substance,  Scrib. 
Mo.,  15.  467. 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  4.  262. 

Am.  J.  Sci.,  15.  297. 

Bib.  Sac.,  7.  132,  626. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  8.  389. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1878,  Feb.  7,  P-  5  (Cook). 

Lippinc.,  3.  377. 

Nation,  4.  275;  13.  5;  17.  141  ;  29.  20  ;  37.  133. 

No.  Am.,  28.  294. 

Putnam,  14.  335. 


244      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

SELF- EDUCATION. 

Arnold's  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  or  any  good  Life  of  Lincoln. 
Channing's  Works,  2.  347.     Self-Culture. 
Greeley's  Recollections  of  a  Busy  Life. 
Parton's  Life  of  Greeley. 
Hosmer's  Self-Education  (1847). 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Education,  p.  775. 
McMaster's  Franklin  as  a  Man  of  Letters  (Am.  Men  of  Let- 
ters S.)- 

Hugh  Miller's  My  Schools  and  Schoolmasters. 
Northend's  Life  of  Elihu  Burritt. 
Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,  2  vols. 
Seymour's  Self-made  Men. 
Smiles's  Self-Help. 

Schurz's  Life  of  Henry  Clay  (Am.  Statesmen  S.). 
Ten  Brook's  Am.  State  Universities  and  Univ.  of  Mich.,  pp. 

3'4-32i- 

Clir.  Exam.,  11.  295. 
Westm.,  64.  73  (Am.  ed.,  p.  39.) 


CO-EDUCATION. 

145.    Is  the  co-education  of  the  sexes  in  higher  institutions 
desirable  ? 

Co-education  may  be  considered  as  it  respects  the  physi- 
cal endurance  and  the  mental  capacity  of  young  women  as 
compared  with  young  men,  and  the  mutual  influence,  for 
good  or  evil,  at  such  an  age,  of  so  general,  close,  and  con- 
stant a  relation  of  the  sexes.  Thus  the  general  question 
includes  three  subordinate  questions,  the  physical,  the 
mental,  and  the  moral. 

The  first,  the  relation  of  study  to  the  health  of  young 
women,  is  one  of  physiology  and  fact,  and  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  facts  taken  as  a  whole.  Dr.  Clarke's  "  Sex 
in  Education,"  together  with  the  several  replies,  will  furnish 
abundant  matter  on  this  point  for  both  sides. 

Secondly,  Is  woman's  mind  so  different  from  that  of  man 
as  to  require  an  education  essentially  different,  in  a  separate 
school?  Men's  minds  are  different  as  compared  with  one 


EDUCATION.  245 

another;  and  this  difference  requires  a  certain  degree  of 
flexibility  in  a  prescribed  course.  The  mind  of  woman  is 
a  human  mind.  In  what,  if  in  anything,  is  the  feminine 
intellect  radically  different  from  the  masculine  ?  As  human, 
has  it  not  similar  characteristics  of  comprehensiveness, 
capacity,  and  adaptation  ?  Is  woman  naturally  adapted  to 
be  intellectually  the  companion  of  man  ?  If  she  is,  should 
she  not  share  his  studies? 

As  to  the  third  point,  it  is  unquestionable  that  proper 
intercourse  of  the  sexes  may  be  a  mutual  benefit.  But  will 
the  general  daily  intercourse  of  the  sexes  be,  on  the  whole, 
wholesome?  This,  too,  must  be  determined  by  the  facts 
where  the  experiment  has  been  tried.  But  it  must  at  the 
same  time  be  remembered  that  other  factors  enter  into  the 
problem,  —  the  age  and  general  character  of  the  students, 
the  religious  influence,  etc.,  which  must  be  taken  into  the 
account. 

The  higher  education  of  woman  is  an  important  phase  of 
her  advancement ;  and  of  this  co-education  is  a  phase. 
Will  it  ever  become  universal?  If  it  would  seem  probable 
that  it  will  not,  may  the  objections  to  it,  at  least  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  be  valid  ?  Why,  for  example,  should  it 
seem  more  practicable  in  the  newer  society  of  the  West, 
than  in  the  older  society  of  the  East?  » 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Educational  AssocM 

1874,  p.  1 1 8. 

Miss  Brackett's  Education  of  Am.  Girls. 
Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  587-590. 
Dr.  Clarke:  I.  Sex  in  Education. 

2.  Building  of  a  Brain. 
Replies  to  Dr.  Clarke  :  - 

Comfort's  Woman's  Education  and  Woman's  Health. 
Mrs.  Duffey's  No  Sex  in  Education. 
Sex  and  Education,  ed.  by  Mrs.  Howe. 

Pres.  Carroll  Cutler :  Shall  Women  now  be  excluded  from 
Adelbert  College  of  Western  Reserve  University?  An 
Argument  presented  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  Nov.  7, 1884, 
(pam.). 

Rep.  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  esp.  1874,  1877,  1878,  1879, 
1881,  1883.  See  Index. 


246      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

1 6th  An.  Rep.  of  Statistics  of  Labor,  Mass.,  1885,  Pt  5.    Health 
Statistics  of  Female  College  Graduates. 

Caroline  H.  Dall,  The  College,  the  Market,  and  the  Court. 

J.  H.  Fairchild:  I.  The  Co-education  of  the  Sexes  as  pursued 
in  Oberlin  College  (pam.).     Same,  Am. 
J.  Educ.,  17.  385. 
2.  Co-education  at  Oberlin,  Bib.  Sac.,  46.  443. 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  1.  237. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  145. 

Orton's  Liberal  Education  of  Women. 

Critic,  11.  85. 

Fortn.,  21.  466  (Mandsley)  ;   p.  582  (Elizabeth  Garrett  Ander- 
son :  Reply  to  Mandsley). 

Independent,  1889,  Oct.  10,  p.  4. 

Nation,  10.  134  ;  11.  383;  16.  349  ;  17.  324;  18.  408. 

No.  Am.,  136.  25. 

Penn.  Mo.,  9.  397-400. 

Princ.,  N.  s»,  10.  117-120. 

Westm.,  90.  427  (The  Suppressed  Sex)  ;  103.  456. 

Westm.,  109.  56  (Am.  ed.,  p.  26).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  136.  685. 

Woman's  Jour.,  1.  19;  2.  241 ;   3.  34,  229,  255  ;  3.  302  (Rep.  of 
the  Com.  on  the  Co-ed,  of  the  Sexes  in  Harvard  Univ.), 

4.  20,   164;  4.  353,  361   (Higginson:  Ans.  to  Dr.  Clarke); 

5.  26,  33,  267,  299;  6.  116,  212,  228;  7.  211  ;  8.  193;  9.  28, 
34,  197  (in  Lond.  Univ.,  9.  60,  76,  10.  97)  ;  10.  65,  164, 
249  ;  11.  367  ;  12.  278;  13.  268;  14.  138,  170,  260;  15.  341  ; 
16.  163,  290. 


STATE   UNIVERSITIES   AND   COLLEGES. 

146.    Are  State  Universities  superior,  in  their  principle  ana 
operation,  to  Colleges  ? 

The  question  of  the  State  University  implies  that  of  the 
State  and  higher  education.  In  the  public  school  the 
State  provides  for  all  primary  education;  should  it,  in 
the  State  University,  provide,  for  the  few  who  may  be  able 
to  avail  themselves  of  it,  higher  and  professional  education  ? 
But  the  State  University,  it  will  be  said,  is  open  to  all 
classes,  and,  through  those  who  enjoy  its  advantages,  is  a 
general  benefit. 


EDUCATION.  247 

Shall  there  be,  then,  a  general  organized  system  of  State 
education  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university  ?  One 
large  university,  amply  endowed  and  equipped,  can  surely 
better  meet  the  needs  of  a  State  for  higher  education 
than  many  small,  struggling  colleges.  The  principle  and 
working  of  the  State  University  may  be  studied  in  the 
case  of  the  State  Universities  of  many  of  the  Western 
States,  and  especially  in  that  of  Michigan,  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  them  all. 

But  how  far  must  State  education  be  secular,  in  the  sense 
that  it  is  neutral  in  respect  to  religion?  Religion  has, 
indeed,  some  place  in  State  Universities ;  but  has  it  its  true 
place  and  influence  ?  Most  Colleges  are  under  a  religious 
influence ;  and  it  is  especially  in  this  respect  that  they 
come  into  favorable  contrast  with  State  Universities.  Many 
of  them  are  under  the  control  of  some  religious  denomina- 
tion, and  in  such  there  may  be  danger  of  a  bias  toward 
sectarianism.  The  importance,  then,  of  the  religious  ele- 
ment in  education,  and  how  and  to  what  degree  it  finds 
place  respectively  in  the  State  University  and  in  the  Col- 
lege, will  be  important  points  in  the  discussion.  The  prin- 
ciple and  working  of  Colleges  may  be  studied  to  advantage 
in  the  case  of  the  Eastern  Colleges. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Educational  Assoc., 
1874,  pp.  65-66,  68-76. 

The  College  Book,  ed.  by  C.  F.  Richardson  and  C.  A.  Clark : 
The  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Ten  Brook's  Am.  State  Universities  and  the  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Univ.  of  Mich.  Semi-Centennial,  1887.  For  the  various  State 
Universities,  see  Reports  of  Com.  of  Educ.,  Index,  Univer- 
sities. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1873,  Mar.  6,  p.  294  (Denominational 
Colleges);  1875,  July  22,  p.  2,  and  Aug.  26,  p.  7  (The  State 
Univ.,  Bascom). 

New  Eng.,  37.  362  (Ought  the  State  to  provide  for  higher  Edu- 
cation ?  C.  K.  Adams). 

No.  Am.,  121.  365  (C.  K.  Adams). 


248      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

NEGATIVE. 

The  College  Book,  ed.  by  Richardson  and  Clark. 

Porter's  Am.  Colleges,  Chap.  n. 

Timing's  Am.  Colleges,  Chap.  4. 

Tyler's  Prayer  ior  Colleges. 

Independent  (N.  Y-),  1331,  Aug.  n,  p.  7  ;  1883,  Jan.  25,  p.  4 

(The  Colleges  and  Religion:  Thwing)  ;   1884,  Jan.  17,  p. 

5  (Chr.  and  Denominational  Colleges). 
New  Eng,  32.  453  (Preb.  Sturtevant) ;  36.  445  (Pres.  Magoun). 


A   NATIONAL    UNIVERSITY. 

147.    Is  the  establishment  of  a  National  University  by  the 
general  government  desirable  ? 

This  question  requires  for  its  answer  the  determination 
of  several  subordinate  questions.  First,  Is  it  the  province 
of  government  to  provide  for  higher  education  ?  But  even 
if  the  State  governments  might  do  this,  does  it  come  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  national  government?  If  it  does,  to 
what  extent  may  the  higher  education  be  properly  made  a 
matter  of  national  concern  ? 

It  has  been  suggested  that,  while  primary  education  re- 
quires distribution,  the  higher  education  requires  concentra- 
tion. Should  there  be  a  single,  central  university,  which 
should  be  the  crown  of  the  educational  system,  in  which  it 
should  be  summed  up  and  should  find  its  unity?  Is  the 
provision  for  the  higher  education  in  the  existing  colleges 
and  universities  adequate,  or  all  that  could  be  desired  ?  In 
short,  is  there  a  call  in  the  educational  demand,  or  a  place 
in  the  educational  system,  for  a  university  with  scope  so 
large  and  endowment  so  ample  that  it  must  be  founded 
and  fostered  by  the  national  government  ? 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Educational  Assoc., 
1870.  p.  97  (Rep.  of  Com.);  1871,  p.  38  (Rep.  of  Com.) ; 
1873,  p.  107.  Same,  in  part,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  3.  689  (Pres. 
Eliot  on  the  Neg.,  followed  by  a  gen.  discussion,  chiefly  on 
the  AfT.)  ;  1874,  pp.  58-87  (Pres.  White  on  the  Aff.,  followed 
by  a  gen.  discussion)  ;  1874,  p.  173  (Rev.  of  Eliot  by 
Hoyt). 


EDUCATION.  249 

J.  H.  Univ.  Studies,  3.  93. 

Report  of  the  Sec.  of  the  Interior,  House  Ex.  Doc.,  49th  Cong. 

ist  Sess.,  1885-86,  V.  n,  p.  86  (Lamar). 
Ten  Brook's  Am.  State  Universities  and  the  Univ.  of  Mich., 

pp.  io-ii,34i-343- 
Am.  J.  Educ.,  2.  86,  265  ;  3.  213. 
Educa.,  6.  331. 

Forum,  5.  371,  and  6.  465,  622  (White). 
Internat.  R.,  13.  527  (Thwing,  Neg.). 
Nation,  17.  126  (Neg.). 
Ohio  Educational  Mo.,  38.  193. 
Science,  6.  509,  539  ;  7.  121. 

COLLEGE   GOVERNMENT. 

148.  Is  the  in  luco  parentis  system  of  College  government 
better  than  the  laissez  faire  system  t  Or,  Is  pater- 
nal government  the  best  for  College  students? 

The  advocates  of  paternal  College  government  insist  on 
the  importance  of  restraint  and  of  moral  training  and  guid- 
ance in  connection  with  instruction ;  while  others  hold  that, 
for  the  development  of  self-reliance,  it  is  better  for  the  stu- 
dent to  be  left,  in  respect  to  his  conduct,  chiefly  to  himself. 
Of  paternal  government,  however  good  in  itself,  there  may 
doubtless  be  too  much,  as  well  in  the  family  as  in  the  college. 
This  may  also  differ  in  different  cases,  and  will  not  always 
be  alike  good.  It  may  be,  on  the  one  hand,  inquisitorial 
and  severe,  and  hence  productive  rather  of  evil  than  of 
good ;  or,  on  the  other,  wise,  judicious,  and  kind,  exerting 
thus  a  controlling  and  beneficent  influence  on  the  character. 
The  latter  kind  might,  it  would  seem,  rather  help  than 
hinder  self-reliance. 

What  degree  of  responsibility  for  the  character  and  con- 
duct of  his  pupil  is  imposed  on  the  teacher  by  his  relation 
to  him?  He  may  make  a  good  and  lasting  impression,  as 
well  on  his  character  as  on  his  intellect.  Should  not  this, 
then,  be  his  aim? 

Finally,  in  what  respect  may  College  government  be  con- 
sidered as  like,  and  in  what  respect  as  different  from,  that 


2 SO      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

of  the  family  and  of  the  primary  school  ?  In  other  words, 
how  much  or  how  little  should  it  retain  of  the  paternal 
element  ? 

An.  Reports  of  the  Pres.  and  Treas.  of  Harvard  College,  1879- 

80,  pp.  69-73. 

Olin's  College  Life,  Lect.  7. 

Porter's  Am.  Colleges,  Chap.  10  (Laws  and  Supervision). 
Independent  (N.  Y.j,  1884,  Jan.  3,  p.  6  (Bascom). 
Nation,  34.  50,  142-144  ;  49.  226. 
New  Eng.,  37.  610. 

No.  Am.,  126.  428  ;  140.  432  ;  149.  I. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  10.  loo ;  13.  106-110. 


SELF-GOVERNMENT   IN    COLLEGES. 

149.    Is  a  system  of  self-government  by  students  in  Colleges 
desirable  ? 

To  what  extent  can  and  should  the  principle  of  democ- 
racy in  government  be  introduced  into  Colleges?  The 
answer  to  this  question  depends  on  the  answer  to  the 
question,  To  what  extent  are  students  in  Colleges  fitted 
for  self-government? 

The  law-abiding  are  a  law  to  themselves,  keeping  all 
rules  as  a  matter  of  course ;  while  it  is  by  these,  under 
a  system  of  self-government,  that  the  lawless  must  be 
restrained  and  corrected.  The  responsibility  for  the  good 
order  of  the  school  is  thrown  upon  them,  and  they  gain 
some  experience  in  the  important  art  of  governing.  A 
share  in  the  government  will  give  them  an  interest  in  it, 
and  the  sense  of  responsibility  will  develop  their  manliness. 

The  teachers  may  also  be,  in  some  way,  represented  in 
the  government.  This  would  make  it  a  formal  and  actual 
co-operation  of  the  mass  of  the  pupils  with  the  teachers  for 
the  promotion  of  order;  which  would  imply  a  positive 
committal  of  the  public  sentiment  of  the  school  in  favor 
of  this  important  end.  Would  such  a  scheme  be  likely  to 
be  more  efficient  and  productive  of  good  results  than  the 
sole  government  by  the  teachers? 


EDUCATION,  251 

The  references  under  the  preceding  question  have  also  a 
bearing  on  this. 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Educational  Assoc.,  held 

at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1889,  p.  539. 
Chr.  Union,  1890,  Feb.  27,  p.  297  (Pres.   Hyde,  of  Bowdoin 

College). 
Educa.,  6.  485. 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1884,  Feb.  14,  p.  I. 
Internat.  R.,  10.  510. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  19.  555,  697 ;  21.  549. 

SCHOOL   EXAMINATIONS. 

150.   Are  examinations  a  true  test  of  scholarship,  and  a 
necessary  means  of  promoting  education  ? 

The  aim  of  examinations  is  to  test  one's  advancement  in 
study.  How  far  do  or  can  they  accomplish  this  end  ?  How 
far  can  the  test  questions  be  made  to  cover  the  studies  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  required?  Is  aptness  in  answering 
questions  always  proportioned  to  the  extent  and  accuracy 
of  scholarship?  Does  the  aim,  in  studying,  to  pass  exami- 
nation, promote  thoroughness  of  research  ?  Does  the  keep- 
ing of  the  examination  in  view  tend  rather  to  narrow  than 
to  broaden  culture  ?  Does  the  making  of  the  examination 
the  measure  of  scholarship  tend  to  make  the  scholarship 
conformable  to,  and  limited  by,  the  examination?  Is  not 
study  for  examination  too  often  a  process  of  cramming, 
consisting  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  by  the  exercise 
of  memory,  without  a  clear  comprehension  or  an  assimila- 
tion of  it?  Mental  development  requires  time,  and  cannot 
be  gained  by  any  process  of  forcing.  Is  this  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  system,  and  not  simply  its  abuse,  or  that 
which  does  not  belong  to  it  ? 

On  the  other  hand,  is  not  the  principle  of  the  exam- 
ination, considered  in  itself,  legitimate?  Is  not  the  ex- 
amination a  proper  means  of  testing  and  of  discovering 
scholarship?  What  has  been,  or  can  be,  offered  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  it?  An  examination  is  a  general  recitation,  or 


252     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

many  recitations  concentrated  in  one.  The  objections, 
therefore,  which  are  made  to  examinations  will  apply,  with 
greater  or  less  force,  to  recitations.  In  the  recitation  and 
in  the  examination  the  student  gives  expression  to  what  he 
has  learned,  increasing  thus  in  his  own  mind  its  definiteness 
and  fixedness. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  2.  539-540. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  288. 

Latham's  On  the  Action  of  Examinations  considered  as  a  Means 

of  Selection. 
Lankester's  Advancement  of  Sci.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1890),  p. 

175- 
Seeley's  Roman   Imperialism,   Chap.  7.     Same,  Essays  on  a 

Liberal  Education,  ed.  by  Farrar,  Ess.  3. 
Todhunter's  Conflict  of  Studies,  Chap.  2. 
Allan.,  45.  594. 

Brit.  Q.,  72.  362  (Am.  ed.,  p.  186). 
Cornh.,  4.  692. 
Fortn.,  23.  835  ;   25.  418. 
.Mind,  2.  193  (»*  Cram  "). 
Nation,  47.  387,  408. 
1 9th  Cent,  3.  647  ;  8.  715  ;  24.-6f7.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  34. 

399,  535  (Omits  the  names). 
19th  Cent.,  24.  919  (A  Reply);  25.  236,  284. 
I9th  Cent.,  Mar.,  1889,  Am.  Supplement. 
Penn.  Mo.,  9.  379. 
Westm.,  129.  352. 


THE    CLASSICS   AND   A   LIBERAL    EDUCATION. 

151.  Is  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  necessary 

to  a  liberal  education  ? 

152.  Is  the  mental  discipline  and  the  knowledge  gained  from 

the  study  of  the  Classics  superior  to  that  gainea 
from  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  ? 

153.  Should  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  be  considered  oj 

greater  importance  in  respect  to  culture  and  utility 
than  the  study  of  French  and  German  ? 

154.  Does  the  study  of  Greek  occupy  a   disproportionate 

place  in  the  ordinary  College  course  ? 


EDUCATION, 


253 


155.  Shotild  Greek  be  considered  as  essential  to  a  liberal 
education?  Or,  Should  Greek  be  elective  in  a 
College  course? 

The  general  interest  of  this  subject  is  increased  by  the 
fact  that  it  involves  the  whole  question  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion in  its  nature  and  extent.  Questions  like  these  are 
suggested  :  What  studies  are  necessary  to  constitute  a  lib- 
eral education?  and  why  are  they  necessary?  Are  the 
Classics  entitled  to  the  prominent  position  which  has  been 
given  them,  and  can  they  hold  it  ?  What  are  the  respective 
merits  of  other  studies,  and  what  should  be  their  relative 
place  in  a  course  of  study?  What  is  the  kind  and  what 
the  degree  of  discipline  afforded  by  the  different  studies? 
and  how  will  the  answer  to  this  question  determine  their 
rank  severally  in  the  course? 

The  references  cover  the  whole  subject  in  all  its  bearings, 
and  some  will  be  found  suited  to  each  question. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Greek  and  Latin  have  had  a  large  place  in  a  liberal  edu- 
cation; but  the  encroachment  of  the  natural  sciences,  of 
the  modem  languages  and  other  studies,  and  of  practical 
education  and  life,  have  put  them  on  the  defensive.  Their 
advocates  are  numerous  and  able,  and  have  made  a  brave 
and  stout  defence,  a  brief  statement  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  which  is  here  subjoined. 

Education  has,  among"  others,  two  ends  of  chief  impor- 
tance, the  development  first  of  thought  and  secondly  of 
expression;  of  which  the  latter,  though  secondary,  is  of 
scarcely  less  practical  importance  than  the  former.  But 
the  clear  and  effective  expression  of  thought  requires  the 
study  and  mastery 'of  language.  Since  language  is  the  form 
and  expression  of  thought,  its  study  and  knowledge  are  of 
the  first  importance,  and  its  right  use  a  high  art.  Language 
bears,  in  all  its  structure,  the  marks  of  mind ;  hence,  as  an 
object  of  study,  it  has  a  peculiar  fitness  to  awaken  and  de- 
velop mind.  It  is  not  only  a  product,  but  an  incarnation  of 


254     KBPERBNCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

mind.  It  teems  with  thought ;  and  thought  is  the  power- 
ful stimulus  of  thought.  But  language  thus  considered 
cannot  be  dissociated  from  literature.  Literature  is  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  the  best  minds  embodied,  and  thus 
made  fixed  and  transparent,  in  fitting  language.  The  con- 
tribution, then,  of  classic  literature,  including  language,  to 
education,  is  thought  in  its  best  expression. 

But  of  all  the  language  and  literature  of  the  ages,  those 
of  Greece  and  of  Rome  stand  pre-eminent.  They  are  in 
every  respect  models,  admirably  fitted,  by  presenting  high 
ideals  of  excellence,  for  imitation  and  for  study,  and  calcu- 
lated to  exercise  a  moulding  influence  on  the  mind,  and  to 
produce  that  culture  which  is  an  important  element  in  edu- 
cation. Moreover,  the  present  can  in  no  wise  be  divorced 
from  the  past,  since  it  sprang  from  it  and  is  rooted  in  it. 
But  of  all  the  ancient  world  the  influence  of  Greece  and  of 
Rome  upon  the  modem  world  is  alone  supreme ;  and  it  is 
through  the  language  and  literature  of  these  wonderful  na- 
tions that  this  influence  has  been  chiefly  exercised.  To 
study  these  is  to  study  in  their  source  the  languages  and 
literatures  of  modern  times ;  and  such  a  study  is  an  indis- 
pensable requisite  for  entering  fully  and  intelligently  into 
the  spirit  and  significance  of  modern  life. 

H.  Barnard's  Studies  and  Conduct  (Hartford,  1873). 

Bowen's  Gleanings  from  a  Literary  Life,  p.  8. 

Bristed's  Five  Years  in  an  Eng.  University,  3d  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1873), 
p.  476. 

Campbell's  Philos.  of  Rhetoric,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4,  sec.  3  (Mod. 
Languages  compared  with  Gr.  and  Lat.). 

Classical  Study:  its  value  illustrated  by  extracts  from  the  Writ- 
ings of  eminent  scholars,  ed.  by  Saml.  H.  Taylor. 

Conington's  Mis.  Writings,  1.  198  (The  Academical  Study  of 
Latin). 

Diman's  Orations  and  Essays,  p.  76.    Same,  New  Eng.,  28.  724. 

Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  Nat.  Educational  Assoc., 
1873,  p.  131  ;  1874,  p.  187. 

Lectures  of  the  Am.  Institute  of  Instruction,  1837,  Lect.  I,  p. 
23  (Classical  and  Scientific  Study  compared)  ,  1856,  p.  106; 
1866,  p.  80:  1876,  Lect.  4  (Moral  Instruction  and  Disci- 
pline in  the  Classical  Languages  and  Literatures). 


EDUCATION.  255 

Writings  of  B.  B.  Edwards,  V.  2,  Chap.  5. 

Essays  on  Education:  Central  Soc.  of  Education (Lond.,  1839), 

3.  84. 
Hamilton's  Discussions  on  Philos.  and  Lit.  (Harper's  ed.,  1856), 

p.  325.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  54.  io6(Am.  ed.,  p.  56). 
The  Question  of  a  Division  of  the  Philosophical  Faculty.    Inaug. 

Address  by  Aug.  Wilh.  Hoffman  (Bost.,  1883). 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,art.  Classical  StudSe^ 
Martineau's  Essays,  Philosophical  and  Theological  (Best,  1868), 

2.  427-428. 
Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.,  1874);  4.  338-361. 

Same,  Classical  Studies,  ed.  by  Taylor,  Chap.  5,  p.  117. 
Porter's  Am.  Colleges,  Chap.  2.     Same,  New  Eng.,  28.  82-113. 

Same  in  part,  Classical  Studies,  ed.  by  Taylor,  p.  143. 
Shedd's  Discourses  and  Essays  (Andover,  1858),  pp.  192-193, 

197-198. 

Thring's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  8. 
Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  Am.,  V.  2,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  15. 
Wickersham's  Methods  of  Instruction,  p.  275. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  6.  56.  (The  Classics  as  an  Intellectual 

Discipline:    E.   D.    Sanborn).      Same   in    part,   Classical 

Studies,  ed.  by  Taylor,  Chap.  15,  p.  289. 
Am.  J.  Educ.,  1.  67. 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  15.  328-336. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  1.  259  (The  Greeks  and  their  Language). 
Atlan.,  51.  171  (Spencer's  Theory  of  Education) ;  53.  71. 
Bib.  Sac.,  5.  23;  8.  10-16  (B.  B.  Edwards).  Same,  Classical 

Studies,  Chap.  8,  p.  185. 
Bib.  Sac.,  9.  507  ;  42.  327  (Greek  among  required  Studies :  W. 

G.  Frost). 

Blackw.,  109.  182  (Study  of  Greek)  ;  116.  365,  599. 
Chr.  R.,  5.  336;  18.  219. 
Contemp.,  34.  802  (Worth  of  a  Classical  Education :  Bonamy 

Price)  ;  60.  663. 

Fortn.,  31.  290  (Shall  we  give  up  Greek  ?     E.  A.  Freeman). 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1883,  Dec.  27,  p.  9  ;  1884,  Mar.  13,  p.  16. 
Internat.  R.,  1.  781. 
Nation,  33.  487  ;  37.  448;  38.  295. 
I9th  Cent,  12.  216  (Lit.  and  Sci. :   M.  Arnold).     Same,  Pop.  Sci. 

Mo.,  21.  737.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  154.  579.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

99.  550. 
No.  Am.,  11.  413 ;  13.  365  ;  19.  125  ;  23.  142 ;  42.  94  (The  Gr. 

Lang,  and  Lit.);  54.  35;  101.  578;  104.  610  ;  112.  229; 

138.  151. 


256     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  2.  67  ;  12.  105  (A  College  Fetich  :   Porter.     Ans. 

to  Adams)  ;   13.  in  (The  Study  of  Greek  :    Fisher) ;  14. 

195  (Greek  and  a  Liberal  Education  :  Porter). 
Quar.,  134.  457  (Am.  ed.,  p.  240). 

NEGATIVE. 

In^ie  strictures  which  have  been  made  on  the  study  of 
the  Classics  many  points  are  involved,  of  which  but  a  few 
hints  can  here  be  given. 

The  history  of  education  shows  that  it  is  subject  to  the 
law  of  progress,  undergoing  modifications  which  keep  it 
conformable  to  the  progress  of  knowledge.  As  new  knowl- 
edge is  added  to  the  general  stock,  that  which  is  the  object 
of  acquisition  in  education  is  increased.  Hence  educational 
changes  are  inevitable,  and  in  the  line  of  progress,  not  only 
in  methods  of  instruction,  but  in  subjects  of  study. 

That  which  has  most  unsettled  courses  of  study  and  com- 
pelled their  reconstruction  is  the  extraordinary  advance  of 
knowledge  in  modern  times,  especially,  but  not  exclusively, 
in  the  physical  sciences.  Science,  in  its  manifoldness  and 
unity,  has  entered  largely,  not  only  into  the  thought  of  the 
scholar,  but  into  the  common  thought ;  for  it  has  a  specu- 
lative, an  experimental,  and  a  practical  side. 

Now  what  is  the  relative  worth  of  the  knowledge  and  of 
the  discipline  which  it  furnishes?  What  place  should  it 
have  in  a  system  of  comprehensive  and  liberal  education  ? 
How  will  its  introduction  into  a  course  of  study  affect  the 
other  studies  of  the  course  ?  Education  is  limited  in  time 
and  by  the  mental  capacity  of  those  who  pursue  it.  What, 
then,  shall  be  the  proportion  of  time  allotted  to  the  several 
studies,  so  as  to  produce,  on  the  whole,  a  complete  and 
harmonious  mental  development?  A  large  part  of  the 
course  of  study  has  been  surrendered  to  the  Classics ;  but 
the  introduction  into  the  course,  not  only  of  scientific 
studies,  but  of  modern  languages  and  other  important 
studies,  renders  an  abridgment  of  the  time  hitherto  given 
to  the  Classics  imperative. 

Here  is  found  the  occasion   of  antagonism.     The  old 


EDUCATION.  257 

learning  is  conservative,  and  would  hold  fast  the  good ;  the 
new  learning  is  aggressive,  and  would  make  place  for  the 
better.  The  claims  of  the  Classics  are  urged  chiefly  on 
the  ground  of  mental  discipline ;  the  claims  of  science 
chiefly  on  the  ground  of  its  important  practical  knowledge. 
Culture  is  claimed  for  the  one ;  for  the  other,  utility.  It  is 
even  affirmed  that  the  new  education  is  better  deserving 
than  the  old  of  the  name  of  liberal,  since  it  includes  a 
larger  number  and  a  wider  range  of  studies. 

One  of  the  necessary  consequences  of  the  increase  of 
studies  is  an  increase  of  courses  of  study.  Instead  of  one, 
which  must  be  taken  by  all,  there  are  now  several,  of  which 
there  may  be  a  choice  of  any  one.  Elective  studies  are 
also  introduced,  so  that  each  course  becomes  itself  multiple. 
All  this  makes  education  varied  and  flexible,  instead  of  fixed 
and  uniform,  so  that  it  becomes  better  adapted  to  the 
many  and  various  mental  capacities.  This  is  the  theory 
and  the  practice  which  is  making  the  study  of  the  Classics 
an  essential  and  principal  part  of  but  one  kind  of  liberal 
education.  All  educated  men  will,  indeed,  in  some  way, 
get  more  or  less  knowledge  and  culture  from  Greece  and 
Rome ;  but  the  multiplicity  of  modern  studies  makes  it 
impossible  that  the  prolonged  study  of  their  language  and 
literature  should  any  longer  be  considered  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  a  liberal  education. 

Adams's  College  Fetich,  Harvard  Address  (pam.).     Same,  In- 
dependent (N.  Y.),  1883,  Aug.  9,  p.  5. 
Addresses  of  the  Nat.  Educational  Assoc.,  1873,  p.  141  (Liberal 

Education  of  the  igth  Cent.). 

Lectures  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1856, 
p.  121  (Classical  and  Scientific  Studies  compared).  1866, 
p.  87  (Place  of  the  Sciences  and  the  Classics  in  a  Lib- 
eral Education). 

Bain's  Education  as  a  Science,  esp.  Chap.  10,  n. 
Bigelow's  Modern  Inquiries,  Chap.  2. 

Cooke:    i.  Credentials  of  Science   the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp. 
195-208    (Discusses    the   importance   and   right 
method  of  a  scientific  education). 
2.  Scientific  Culture  and  other  Essays  (N.  Y.,  iSSi). 


258      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS.   , 

The  Culture  demanded  by  Modern  Life :  Addresses  and  Argu- 
ments on  the  Claims  of  Scientific  Education,  with  Introd.  by 
Youmans. 

Essays  on  a  Liberal  Education,  ed.  by  Farrar,  Ess.  i,  2,  and  9 
(i.  Hist.,  2.  Theory,  9.  Social  Results,  of  Classical  Edu- 
cation). Criticised  in  Conington's  Mise.  Writings,  1.  449. 
Same.  Contemp.,  7.  i. 

Huxley's  Lay  Sermons  (N.  Y.,  1871),  Chap.  3,  pp.  43-46. 

Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.,  1874),  4.  367-369 
(Study  of  the  Physical  Sciences). 

Spencer's  Education,  Chap,  i,  2.  Chap,  i,  same,  Westm.,  72.  i 
(What  Knowledge  is  of  the  most  Worth  ?). 

Sydney  Smith's  Works,  art.  Professional  Education.  Same, 
Ed.  R.,  15.  40. 

Winchell's  Shall  we  teach  Geology  ?  esp.  Chap.  6  (Classics  and 
Culture). 

Bib.  Sac.,  42.  139  (Plea  for  a  Liberal  Education  :  J.  K.  Newton 
discusses  the  Study  of  Greek  and  of  the  Modern  Languages). 

Cent.,  6.  203  (What  is  a  Liberal  Education  ?     Pres.  Eliot). 

Contemp.,  35.  832  (The  Classical  Controversy  :  Bain).  Same, 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  15.  631. 

Contemp.,  60.  582. 

Fortn.,  9.  95. 

Meth.  R.,  49.  201  (Advantages  of  a  Scientific  Education : 
Winchell). 

Nation,  34.  32-33. 

No.  Am.,  101.  515. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  707  (English  against  the  Classics);  7.  402 
(The  Higher  Education  :  Clarke) ;  17.  145  (The  Classics 
that  educate  us);  18.  412  (The  Study  of  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge); 23.  i i6(Gr.  and  Lat.  against  Nature  and  Science); 
24.  i  (The  Gr.  Question :  Prof.  T.  P.  Cooke) ;  24.  117  (The 
Current  Study  of  Classics  a  failure);  24.  289  (The  Classical 
Question  in  Germany :  Prof.  E.  J.  James);  pp.  412, 414  (The 
same,  Editorial) ;  24.  558  (Education  without  Dead  Lan- 
guages) ;  25.  772  (Further  Remarks  on  the  Gr.  Question^ 
J.  P.  Cooke)  ;  26.  2o7GermaTT  Testimony  OH  the  Classic's 
Question)  ;  31.  14  (Present  Status  of  the  Gr.  Quest). 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  13.  127  (Our  Colleges  before  the  Country:  W.  G. 
Sumner). 

Westm.,  4.  147  (Th~  Present  System  of  Education) ;  53.  393 
(Am.  ed.,  p.  209) ;  60.  450  (Am.  ed.,  p.  236). 


EDUCATION.  259 

PHILOSOPHY  AND    MATHEMATICS. 

156.  Does  the  study  of  Philosophy  afford  a  better  mental 

discipline  than  the  study  of  Mathematics  ? 

157.  Has  Mathematics  a  greater  utility  than  Philosophy? 

Philosophy  is  the  product  of  the  reason  in  its  deepest 
and  highest  exercise ;  hence  its  study  gives  to  the  mind 
depth  and  comprehensiveness.  It  leads  the  mind  to  ana- 
lyze and  to  combine,  and  to  comprehend  all  things  in  their 
unity.  It  comprises  not  only  the  knowledge  of  the  mind  as 
the  subject,  but  of  all  that  is  an  object  to  the  subject ;  that 
is,  of  all  things,  in  their  origin,  nature,  relation,  unity,  reason, 
and  end.  The  study  of  philosophy,  therefore,  develops  the 
innate  philosophy  of  the  mind,  making  it  philosophical ;  so 
that  it  philosophizes  about  all  things,  goes  to  the  bottom 
of  a  subject,  looks  at  it  on  every  side,  fathoms  its  depths, 
unites  its  parts  into  an  harmonious  whole. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  philosophy  is 
human  speculation,  which  has  not  produced  certain  and 
definite  results  of  thought  or  knowledge,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  always  existed  in  contending  schools ;  and  hence 
that  its  influence  has  been  barren,  tending  rather  to  perplex 
than  to  enlighten  and  strengthen  the  mind. 

But  mathematics,  if  less  comprehensive  and  profound 
than  philosophy,  is  characterized  by  exactness  and  definite- 
ness  ;  so  that  the  knowledge  it  imparts  is  the  most  certain 
and  satisfactory  of  all  knowledge.  Comte  declares  that  it 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  Positive  Philosophy.  Its  appli- 
cation is  as  wide  as  the  physical  universe  to  which  it  per- 
tains, and  it  enters  into  the  physical  sciences  as  an  essential 
element.  It  fixes  the  attention,  produces  concentration  of 
thought,  gives  the  mind  command  of  itself,  and  affords  an 
unsurpassed  discipline  for  the  reasoning  powers. 

In  short,  while  the  utility  of  mathematics  gives  it  great 
practical  importance,  the  utility  of  philosophy,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  not  less,  but  greater,  because  it  is  comprehensive 
and  all-pervasive. 


260      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Butler's  Lectures  on  the  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  Introductory  S., 

Lect.  6,  7. 

Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  V.  i,  Lect.  I. 
Hamilton:   I.   Lectures  on  Metaphysics,  Lect.  1-5. 

2.  Discussions  on  Philos.  and  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  p.  257. 
On  the  Study  of  Mathematics  as  an  Exercise 
of  Mind.     Same,   Ed.   R.,  62.   409  (Am.   ed., 
p.  218).     (Compares  Mathematics  and  Philos- 
ophy, and  quotes  many  authorities  to  confirm 
his  depreciatory  view  of  the  former.) 
Martineau's  Essays,  Philosoph.  and  Theol.  (Bost.),  2.  410. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  in  the  iQth  Cent.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  Introd. 
Morris's  Prejudiced  Inquiries,  p.  172. 
B.  G.  Northrop's  Education  Abroad  and  Other  Papers,  p.  no. 

Mental  Philos.  the  Professional  Study  for  the  Teacher. 
Stewart's  Elements  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  Introd., 
Pt.   2,  sec.  i,  2.     Collected  Works   (Edin.,   1859),  v-  2- 
Utility  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind. 
Chr.  R..  3.  428;  7.  481. 
Educa.,  2.  437. 

Fortn.,  9.  102-103;  10.  623  (Philos.  as  a  Subject  of  Study). 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  11.  231,  363  (Schelling). 
Nation,  23.  178,  180. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  2.  697  (Philos.  as  Scientia  Scientiarum  :  Robt. 
Flint):  9.  103  (The  Place  of  Philos.  in  the  Theol.  Cur- 
riculum :  F.  L.  Patton) ;  9.  208  (Philos.  and  its  Specific 
Problems  :  Geo.  S.  Morris). 

MATHEMATICS. 

Bain's  Education  as  a  Science,  Chap.  5,  pp.  148-154;  Chap.  8, 

pp.  295-298. 

Comte's  Positive  Philos.,  trans,  by  Harriet  Martineau,  V.  i,  Bk.  i. 
Davies's  Logic  and  Utility  of  Mathematics,  Bk.  3. 
13enj.  Franklin's   Works  (Sparks's  ed.),  2.'  66  (Usefulness  of 

•Mathematics). 

Hill's  True  Order  of  Studies,  Chap.  3-5. 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  553. 
Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  Chap.  6. 
Mill's  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (N.  Y.),  4.  365-367. 
Todhunter's  Conflict  of  Studies,  Ess.  3,  6. 
Whewell's  Principles  of  Eng.  Univ.  Educ. ;  Thoughts  on  the 

Study  of  Mathematics  as  a  Part  of  a  Liberal  Education. 


EDUCATION.  26l 

Rev.  by  Hamilton,  Discussions  on  Philos.  and  Lit.  (N.  Y.), 
p.  257.  Same,  Ed.  R.,  62.  409  (Am.  ed.,  p.  218).  Hamil- 
ton's art.  rev.  by  Mill,  Examination  of  Sir  Wm.  Hamilton's 
Philos.,  V.  2,  Chap.  27. 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  13.  115,  390,  654. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  7.  r  (Importance  of  the  Mathematical  Studies 
considered  as  a  Branch  of  Liberal  Education). 

Bib.  Sac.,  8.  16-18;  32.  498. 

Fortn.,  9.  101. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  5.  144;  11.  229-230. 

Meth.  Q.,  11.  218  (The  Use  of  Mathematics  in  Education). 

Nature,  1.  237,  261. 

New  Eng.,  35.  421  (Educational  Force  of  Mathematics). 

No.  Am.,  13.  363  ;  85.  223  (The  Imagination  in  Mathematics)  ; 
87.  i  (The  Reason  in  Mathematics). 


ASTRONOMY   AND   GEOLOGY. 

158.  Does  the  study  of  Astronomy  tend  more  to  expand  the 

mind  than  the  study  of  Geology  ? 

159.  Is  the  study  of  Geology  of  more  practical  benefit  than 

the  study  of  Astronomy  ? 

Astronomy  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  but  has 
been  much  enlarged  and  improved  in  modern  times ;  while 
geology,  a  new  science,  has  had  a  wonderful  development, 
and  has  filled  a  large  place  in  the  general  thought,  on  which 
also  it  has  had  in  many  respects  an  important  influence. 

Astronomy  gives  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  physical 
universe;  whence  its  study^  imparts  that  important  feature 
of  an  education,  comprehensiveness  of  mind.  In  like  man- 
ner, if  not  to  an  equal  degree,  geology  imparts  compre- 
hensiveness of  mind  by  giving  a  comprehensive  view  of  this 
earth.  What  geology,  as  Compared  with  astronomy,  lacks 
in  the  extent,  it  makes  up  in  the  fulness,  of  its  material.  If 
astronomy  gives  a  larger  vjpw,  it  is  from  the  nature  of  the 
case  more  superficial ;  if  jfs  view  is  more  general,  it  is  for 
that  very  reason  less  particular.  Is  the  amount  of  knowl- 
edge comprised  in  astronomy  really  greater,  or  of  more 


262      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

practical  interest  and  importance,  than  that  comprised  in 
geology? 

ASTRONOMY. 
Burr's  Ecce  Coelum. 

Chalmers's  Astronomical  Discourses.     See  Works. 
Dick's  Christian  Philosopher,  Chap.  2  :  Astronomy.     Complete 

Works,  V.  2. 
Everett's  Orations  and  Speeches,  3.  422.     Same,  Am.  J.  Educ., 

2.  605. 

Foster's  Critical  Essays,  2.  353. 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  54. 
.Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  Chap.  7. 
Mitchell's  Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds. 
Pouchet's  Universe  (N.  Y.,  1882),  The  Sidereal  Universe. 
Proctor's  Expanse  of  Heaven. 
Chr.  Obs.,  16.  588. 
Eel.  M.,  56.  145:  72   530. 

Fraser,  63.  289,  458.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  53,  66,  454. 
Fraser,  84.  282  (The  Study  of  Astronomy:    Proctor).     Same, 

Eel.  M.,  79.  167. 
Liv.  Age,  58   32. 
Lond.  Q.,  41.  265  (Modern  Astronomy)     Same,  Liv.  Age,  125. 

»95 
Nat.  Q.,  24.  145.         No.  Brit,  6.  206  (Am.  ed.,  p.  107). 

GEOLOGY. 

Dana:  i.  Manual  of  Geology,  Introd. 
2.  Geological  Story  briefly  told. 
Dick's  Christian  Philosopher,  Chap  2 :  Geology. 
Geikie's  Text-Book  of  Geology,   Introd.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit., 

10.  212-213. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  338. 
Le  Conte's  Elements  of  Geology,  Introd. 
LyelPs  Principles  of  Geology,  uth'ed.,  V.  i,  Chap.  I,  Introd. 
Pouchet's  Universe  (N.  Y.,  1882),  Ceolojry. 
Richardson's  Introduction  to  Geqjpgy  (rev.  ed  ,  Lond.,  1851), 

Chap.  i.  % 

Winchell:  i.  Shall  we  teach  Geotogy?  A  Discussion  of  the 
proper  Place  of  Gf  ology  in  Modern  Education 
(Chicago,  1889). 

2.  Sparks  from  a  Geologist's  Hammer,  p.  152.  A 
Grasp  of  Geologfc  Time.  Same,  Lakeside. 
1.  369.  • 


EDUCATION.  263 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 

1 60.    Is  the  reading  of  History  more  beneficial  to  the  indi- 
vidual mind  than  the  reading  of  Biography  ? 

Biography  is  the  particular  of  that  of  which  history  is  the 
general.  The  one  is  the  narrative  of  a  man,  or  of  men 
taken  singly ;  the  other  is  the  narrative  of  men  and  their 
acts  taken  in  the  aggregate,  as  they  exist  in  mutual  rela- 
tion in  society,  and  form  nations  with  a  national  existence, 
character,  and  life.  Hence  they  are  not  only  similar,  but 
often  run  together,  each  one,  in  the  case  of  great  public 
men,  being  contained  in  the  other.  Nevertheless  they  are, 
in  character  and  influence,  really  distinct. 

Biography,  being  more  personal,  has  a  more  immediate 
and  close  application  to  the  individual  mind  as  an  example 
and  a  stimulus  ;  while  history,  being  larger  in  its  scope  and 
more  full  in  its  details,  imparts  to  the  mind  breadth  and 
fulness.  The  present  affords,  for  the  interest  and  instruc- 
tion of  every  mind,  multifarious  objects.  But  history,  by 
its  reproduction  of  the  past,  brings  before  the  mind  as  in 
a  drama  innumerable  successive  times,  with  their  various 
lessons  of  instruction,  of  warning,  and  of  encouragement. 

In  reading  biography,  therefore,  one  may  feel  the  influ- 
ence of  a  superior  mind,  while  in  reading  history  he  may 
find  wisdom  as  taught  in  the  experience  of  the  past. 

HISTORY. 

Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Lit.,  Introd. 
Arnold's  Lectures  on  Mod.  Hist.,  Inaugural  Lect 
Bolingbroke's  Letters  on  the  Study  and  Use  of  History.    Works 

(Lond.,  1777),  V.  2. 

•Carlyle's  Essays,  2.  228  ;  3.  247.    Same,  Fraser,  2  413  ;  7.  585. 
Emerson's  Essays.     Prose  Works,  1.  217. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  12.  19. 

Farrar's  Social  and  Present  Day  Questions  (Bost),  Chap.  n. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  V.  4,  Additional  Essays,  Ess.  3. 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  423. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  1.  ^376.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  47.  331. 


264      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  Chap.  8. 

Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History,  2d  ed.     Pedagogic 

Library  (Bost.,  i885> 
Hannah  More's  Hints  for  forming  the  Character  of  a  Young 

Princess,  Chap.  5-14.     Works  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  2. 
Morris's  Prejudiced  Inquiries,  p.  148. 
Porter's  Books  and  Reading,  Chap.  11-13. 
Thwing's  Reading  of  Books,  Chap.  3. 
Wicktrsham's  Methods  of  Instruction,  Chap,  d 
Atlan.,  25.  44. 
Critic,  6.  176,  187  (Froude). 
Mag.  Am.  Hist.,  18.  157 
Nation,  4.  417. 
No.  Am.,  75.  247. 

BIOGRAPHY. 

Carlyle's  Essays,  3.  52.     Same,  Fraser,  5.  253. 

Farrar's  Social  and  Present  Day  Questions  (Bost.),  Chap.  13. 

Helps's  Friends  in  Council,  N.  s.,  V.  I,  Chap.  5. 

The  Phillips  Exeter  Lectures,  1885-86,  p.  179. 

Porter's  Books  and  Reading,  Chap.  14. 

Thwing's  Reading  of  Books,  Chap.  2. 

Blackw.,  69.  40. 

Contemp.,  44.  76.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  158.  323. 

Nation,  21.  248. 

New  Eng.,  25.  218. 

New  York  R.,  10.  348. 

No.  Am.,  84.  406. 

Westm.,  76.  335  (Am.  ed.t  p.  180). 


THE   SPELLING   REFORM. 

r6i.    Is  the  radical  change  of  English  orthography  to  pho- 
netic spelling  desirable  or  practicable  ? 

It  is  easier  to  show,  by  numerous  examples,  the  incon- 
sistency and  absurdity  of  English  orthography,  and  the  ne- 
cessity for  and  advantages  of  its  simplification,  than  really 
to  secure  the  required  change.  In  other  words,  it  is  easier 
to  see  what  might,  and  perhaps  what  ought  to  be  done, 
than  to  do  it. 


EDUCATION.  265 

Language  is  a  growth,  and  not  an  article  made  to  order. 
Even  what  might  be  called  its  mechanism  is  a  growth. 
The  production,  reflection,  and  instrument  of  the  human 
mind,  it  is  acted  upon  and  modified  by  manifold  influences, 
which  it  is  not  easy  to  control.  Hence  its  progress  is  coin- . 
cident  with  the  progress  of  man,  and  partakes  of  its  imper- 
fection. The  experiment  of  applying  the  phonetic  principle 
to  a  language  would  evidently  be  much  less  difficult  in  the 
case  of  one  which  had  not  yet  been  reduced  to  writing. 

The  cardinal  principle  of  the  spelling  reform  is  the  con-« 
formity  of  the  written  to  the  spoken  language ;  hence  this/ 
is  the  chief  point  in  dispute,  the  decision  of  which  will  de-y 
termine  the  question.  For  the  attainment  of  the  important  f 
end  of  the  simplification  of  the  spelling,  this  would  seemf 
to  be  an  efficient  means.  But  as  to  uniformity,  the  sam 
cannot  be  said ;  for  the  spelling  would  obviously  be  as  vari 
ous  and  as  variable  as  the  pronunciation  to  which  it  is  con 
formed.  There  would  be,  moreover,  a  practical  difficulty  in 
always  conforming  the  written  to  the  spoken  language,  an 
an  absolute  conformity  could  probably  never  be  effected. 

Spoken  language  is  the  more  variable*;  hence  to  mak 
it  the  standard  to  which  the  written  is  to  be  conforme 
is  to  increase,  not  its  uniformity,  but  its  variability.  Th 
written  language  must,  then,  it  will  be  said,  be  conforme 
to  a  standard  spoken  language ;  of  which  it  shall  not  onl 
be  the  counterpart,  but  the  fixed  embodiment  and  repre 
scntative.  But  even  so  it  may  be  doubted  whether  there 
would  not  be  rather  a  k>ss  than  a  gain  of  uniformity  i 
orthography.  A 

In  short,  the  proposaf  of  the  spelling  reformers  is  a 
ideal,  which,  while  it  will  have  more  or  less  influence,  is  not 
likely  soon,  if  ever,  to  revolutionize  the  orthography  of  the 
language.  Nevertheless,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  there 
will  be  changes ;  and  these  changes  will  doubtless  be  such 
as  to  produce  greater  simplicity  and  uniformity. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1879,  p.  637  ;  1884,  p.  743. 

Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Lit.,  2.  21  (Orthography  and  Orthoepy). 

Ellis's  Plea  for  Phonetic  Spelling. 


266      REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Hadley's  Essays,  Philological  and  Critical,  p.  351. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  672,  Orthography. 

Miiller:    I.    Chips  from  a   German   Workshop  (N.  Y.,  1881), 

5.  133.     Same,  Fortn.,  25.  556. 
2.    Sci.  of  Language  (N.  Y.,  1865),  2.  iio-m. 

Pitman's  Phonetic  Journal. 

Proceedings  of  the  Am.  Philological  Assoc..  1875,  1876. 

Proceedings  of  the  Internat.  Convention  for  the  Amendment  of 
Eng.  Orthography,  Philad.,  1876. 

Proceedings  of  the  Spelling  Reform  Assoc.,  Philad.,  1876. 

Trench's  English,  Past  and  Present  (Neg.). 

^Veisse's  Origin,  Progress,  and  Destiny  of  the  Eng.  Language 
and  Literature,  pp.  385-396. 

fVhite's  Every  Day  English  (Bost.,  1890),  Pt.  2,  Chap.  8-16, 
esp.  pp.  258-260  (Neg.). 

Whitney's  Oriental  and1  Linguistic  Studies,  2.  181.     Same,  Na- 

9      tion,  4.  356,  446. 

Cornh.,  33.  582.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  129.  730.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
87.69. 

Torum.  6   424  (The  Reign  of  Law  in  Spelling  :  March). 

fcalaxy,  20.  403  (Neg.). 

\pdependent  (N.  Y.),  1879.  Aug.  14,  p.  6  (March)  ;  Oct.  16, 
pp.  i  (March),  14;  Dec.  n,  p.  I  (The  Economic  Side  of 
the  Spelling  Reform  :  March).  1880,  Jan.  i,  p.  15  (Spen- 
ser and  the  Spelling  Reform);  Jan.  15,  p.  i  (Spelling  from 
a  Missionary  I'oint  of  View:  Marsh);  Mar.  n,p.  4  (Ety- 

\       mology  and  the  Spelling  Reform  :    Murray).      1881.  Jnn. 

•       27,  p.  I  (Whitney)  ;    Mar.  10,  p.  3  (Ellis).     1882,  Apr.  20, 

»      p.  3  ;  June  8,  p.  4. 

Lippinc.,  26.  in  (Neg.). 

Nation,  38.  522  (Neg. :  Argues  that  the  written  form  deter- 

j       mines  the  identity  of  the  word,  and  not  the  sound). 

New  Eng.,  39.  62  (Neg.)  :  40.  113  (Neg.)  ;  43.  632  (Neg.). 

tto.  Am,  140.  357  (Hunt). 

Fop.  Sci.  Mo.,  27.  638  (How  Spelling  damages  the  Mind: 
Fernald). 

Princ,  x.  s.,  5.  125  (March). 

Scrib.  Mo.,  18.  729,  864  (Lounsbury). 

Westm.,  51.  63  (Am.  ed.,  p.  34). 


LITER  A  TURE.  267 


VI.    LITERATURE. 


T  ITERATURE  comprises  those  productions  of 
J >  the  human-  mind  which  partake  rather  of  im- 
agination than  reason,  such  as  poetry,  the  drama, 
fiction,  essays,  orations,  and  humorous  and  satirical 
writings.  Of  these,  poetry  may  be  considered  as 
standing  at  the  head,  as  the  chief  representative  of 
the  class.  Hence  other  writings,  though  lacking  the 
form  of  poetry,  may  be  poetical,  that  is,  may  pos- 
sess in  some  degree  the  characteristics  of  poetry. 

As  the  offspring  of  the  imagination,  literature 
bears  a  near  relation  to  art ;  indeed,  poetry  has  been 
reckoned  among  the  fine  arts.  In  this  aspect,  one 
of  its  chief  characteristics  is  beauty.  Truth,  in  its 
harmony  with  beauty,  is  likewise  an  essential  charac- 
teristic, yet  less  as  the  mere  actual  than  as  the  ideal. 
It  is  the  ideal  of  truth  and  of  beauty,  in  and  above 
the  actual,  which,  embodied  in  and  expressed  by 
them,  makes  literature  and  art.  In  them  the  actual 
becomes  transformed  into  the  ideal.  In  this  is  found 
their  use,  their  service  to  mankind,  —  the  showing  of 
the  ideal  in  and  from  the  actual,  art  to  the  mind 
through  the  eye,  literature  to  the  mind  through  the 
medium  of  language. 

Literature,  like  art,  is  a  representation  of  nature,  of 
man,  and  of  human  life.  It  is,  like  art,  an  ideal  re- 
production of  them,  which,  in  a  certain  appearance, 
makes  them  fixed  and  communicable.  Painting,  in 
its  influence,  is  more  vivid,  —  the  words  are  more  full 
and  expressive.  Literature  is,  therefore,'  like  art,  a 


268      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

creation,  — whence  it  derives  its  personal  or  individual 
character.  The  character  and  excellence  of  literary 
productions  correspond  to  the  individual  genius  of 
the  several  writers.  This  is,  indeed,  true  in  some 
sense  in  other  writings;  but  in  literature  it  is  seen 
in  a  higher  degree.  The  reason  of  this  seems  to  be 
that  literature  is  more  a  work  of  art,  that  is,  more  of 
a  creation  by  the  individual  mind.  But  literature 
is  not  only  individual  but  national,  and,  as  national, 
historical,  in  that  it  covers  the  various  periods  of  the 
national  life.  As  national  and  historical,  it  is  com- 
posite and  comparative,  showing  not  only  many  indi- 
viduals, but  many  nations  and  ages  in  their  manifold 
and  various  aspects. 

The  influence  of  literature  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  writer  possesses  only  in  an  extraordinary  what 
all  men  possess  in  an  ordinary  degree,  —  he  to  create, 
they  to  appropriate  and  enjoy.  A  few  minister  to 
the  many.  The  imagination  of  the  writer  excites  the 
imagination  of  the  reader,  contributing  to  his  pleasure 
and  profit. 

Truth  appears  in  literature  rather  as  sentiment, 
that  is,  not  in  an  abstract,  but  in  a  concrete  form, 
or  as  proceeding  from  and  addressed  as  well  to  feel- 
ing as  to  reason.  It  is  truth  as  it  appears  and  is 
known  in  character,  conduct,  and  life ;  hence  its  in- 
fluence in  literature  is  of  the  same  kind  as  its  influ- 
ence in  actual  life. 

Literature,  having  for  its  subject  character  and  life, 
is  ethical.  Its  end  is  the  good ;  hence  so  far  as  it 
promotes  this  it  is  true  and  beneficial,  while  so  far  as 
it  promotes  evil  it  is  false  and  injurious. 


LITERATURE.  269 


AUTHORSHIP    OF   THE   HOMERIC   POEMS. 

162.  Does  the  Iliad  afford  conclusive  evidence  of  various 

authorship  ? 

163.  Is  the  authorship  of  the  Iliad  and  of  the   Odyssey 

identical? 

The  precise  origin  of  the  two  great  poems  attributed 
to  Homer  is  involved  in  hopeless  obscurity.  It  can  never 
be  known  that  a  great  genius  called  Homer  is  their  sole 
author,  as  certainly  as  it  is  known  that  Virgil  is  the  author 
of  the  ^£neid.  This  fact  leaves  tiie  authorship  of  these 
celebrated  poems  an  open  question,  to  be  determined, 
as  nearly  as  it  can  be,  by  the  evidence  external  and  in- 
ternal. But  the  former  is  so  meagre  and  uncertain  as  to 
have  little  weight. 

The  question,  then,  turns  on  the  internal  evidence,  or 
on  a  critical  estimate  of  the  poems  themselves.  This  in- 
volves various  theories  and  judgments,  and  in  fact  leaves 
the  question  still  open.  Some  find  unity  and  marks  of  a 
single  great  mind;  others  find  contradictions  indicating 
lack  of  unity,  and  various  authorship. 

Whatever  the  materials  with  which  he  wrought,  it  seems 
probable  that  one  mind  put  upon  the  whole  the  mark  of 
his  transcendent  genius. 

Anthon :  i.  Classical  Diet.,  pp.  639,  666,  914,  art.   Homerus, 

I  lias,  Odyssea. 

2.  Manual  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Chap.  5-8. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  8.  779-781. 

Benjamin's  Troy  (Ep.  of  An.  Hist.  S.),  Pt.  2,  Chap.  3-4. 
Bonitz's  Origin  of  the  Homeric  Poems,  trans. 
Browne's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3-6. 
De  Quincey's  Historical  and  Critical  Essays,  1.  220.     Same, 

Blackw.,  50.  411,  618,  747. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  11.  597;  9th  ed.,  12.  115-119. 
Geddes's  Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poems. 
Gladstone  :  i.  Homer  (Lit.  Primer),  Chap.  2. 

2.  Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,  V.  3. 
Crete's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  2,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  21. 


270      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Jebb's  Homer,  Chap.  4 

Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit,  Pt  I,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  3. 

Mahaffy's  Hist  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Chap.  4,  5. 

Muller's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Chap.  5,  sec.  13. 

Mure's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  3-4,  6,  9-10. 

Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Bk.  I,  Chap.  I. 

Contemp.,   34.   442    (Freeman);     38.    281    (Rev.  of   Geddes: 

Blackie)  ;  p.  518  (Reply  to  Blackie  :  Geddes). 
Ed.  R.,  108.  502  (Am.  ed.,  p.  255),  Rev.  of  Gladstone's  Homeric 

Studies;  133.  358  (Doctrine  of  the  Chorizontes). 
i'ortn.,  9.  419  (Cox)  ;  23.  575  (Homer  and  his  Recent  Critics: 

Lang). 

No.  Am.,  37.  340 ;  112.  339-346. 
Quar.,  44.  121. 


THE   ILIAD   AND   THE  ^NEID. 
164.   Is  the  Iliad  a  greater  epic  than  the  sEneid? 

The  Iliad  and  the  JEneid  are  the  two  great  representa- 
tive epics  respectively  of  Greece  and  of  Rome,  and  also 
the  chief  representatives  of  the  primitive  and  of  the  lit- 
erary epic. 

The  Iliad  exhibits  the  characteristics  of  the  Greek,  the 
^neid  of  the  Roman  mind.  The  Iliad  is  the  production 
of  supreme  genius  in  a  rude  age ;  the  ^neid  is  the  work 
of  an  accomplished  literary  artist  in  an  age  of  high  culture. 

In  originality,  spontaneity,  naturalness,  human  interest, 
and  the  portrayal  of  character,  the  Iliad  is  without  a  peer ; 
while  in  its  general  scope,  in  the  grandeur  of  its  conception, 
and  in  its  underlying  purpose  and  thought,  the  yEneid  is 
superior. 

Finally,  the  relation  of  the  ^neid  to  the  Iliad  corre- 
sponds, in  some  measure,  to  the  relation  of  Rome  to 
Greece. 

THE  ILIAD. 

For  native  genius  and  for  culture,  the  ancient  Greeks  are 
the  marvel  of  the  ages.  But  of  all  the  Greeks  Homer  is 
the  greatest  and  most  original  genius,  and  the  Iliad  is  his 


LITERATURE.  2?  I 

masterpiece.  Because  of  his  influence,  as  well  as  because 
of  his  greatness,  Homer  was  the  master  of  the  Greeks.  Of 
all  literature  the  Iliad  is  the  masterpiece,  making  Homer 
the  first  name  among  poets. 

Both  in  its  conception  and  its  execution  as  a  work  of  art 
the  Iliad  stands  unrivalled.  .One  of  its  most  obvious  fea- 
tures is  a  pervading  human  interest.  It  deals  especially  with 
individuals,  and  its  chief  characters  are  distinct  and  lifelike. 
It  is  a  repository  of  the  life,  of  the  state  of  society,  of  the 
manners  and  customs,  of  the  morals,  religion,  and  politics, 
of  the  age  which  it  celebrates. 

It  has  at  once  the  simplicity  and  the  perfection  of  a 
great  work  of  art.  It  has  unity  and  variety,  grandeur  and 
beauty,  fire  and  pathos.  The  plot  is  well  conceived  and 
well  carried  out ;  the  style  is  clear  and  animated ;  the 
action  is  varied  and  the  interest  sustained.  The  active 
interest  of  the  gods  in  human  affairs,  and  the  divine  decree 
which  fixes  the  fate  of  men,  are  shown  according  to  the 
ideas  of  the  time. 

Translations  by  Bryant,  Butcher  and  Lang,  Chapman,  Cowper, 

the  Earl  of  Derby,  and  Pope. 
Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  art.  Ilias,  p.  666. 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  43  (Compares  Homer  with  Virgil). 
Browne's  Gr.  Classical  Lit.,  Chap.  7. 
H.  N.  Coleridge's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  the  Gr.  Classic  Poets, 

2cl  ed.  (Lond.,  1834),  p.  176. 

Collins's  Homer,  Iliad  (An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  11.  602-604  ;  pth  ed.,  12.  108. 
Froude's  Short  Studies,  1.  406.     Same,  Fraser,  44.  76. 
Gladstone:  i.  Homer  (Literature  Primers). 

2.  Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age. 

3.  Juventus  Mundi. 

4.  Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  5.  754. 
Crete's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  205-209. 
Hobbes's  Eng.  Works  (Lond.,  1844),  V.  10,  Trans,  of  Iliad  and 

Odyssey  :  To  the  Reader.    (Compares  Virgil  with  Homer.) 
Jebb's  Homer,  Introd.  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Pt.  I,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  I. 
Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1854),  2.  239. 


272       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Mahaffy's  Hist,  of  Cl.  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1880),  V.  I,  sec.  65,  p.  78. 

Mills 's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  An.  Greece  (Bost,  1854),  pp.  48-50. 

Miiller's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1840),  V.  I,  Chap.  5. 

Mure's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  6,  7;  V.  2,  Bk.  2, 
Chap.  12-14,  17. 

Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Ek.  i,  Chap.  2. 

Snider's  Homer's  Iliad,  a  Commentary  (St.  Louis,  Mo.). 

Symonds's  Studies  of  the  Gr.  Poets,  2d  S.,  Chap.  2,  3. 

White's  Classic  Lit.,  pp.  31-46. 

Wilkinson's  Prep.  Gr.  Course  in  Eng.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  Chap.  9. 

Bib.  Sac.,  4.  332-337- 

Blackw.,  42  702,  734;  84.  127. 

Chr.  Exam.,  68.  i  (The  Women  of  Homer). 

No.  Am.,  91.  301  (Homer  and  his  Heroines);  94.  108-113; 
112.  335-339- 

Westm.,  102.  327  (The  Character  of  Achilles).  Same,  Sy- 
monds's Gr.  Poets,  2d  S.,  Chap.  2. 

THE  ^ENEID. 

The  ^Eneid,  in  its  essential  aim,  scope,  and  significance, 
is  the  great  Roman  epic ;  and  it  is  from  this  view  that  a 
true  estimate  of  its  distinctive  character  and  excellence 
must  be  gained.  It  celebrates  the  divine  origin  and  pre- 
destined greatness  of  Rome ;  and  in  this  is  found  its  unity 
and  its  originality.  It  celebrates  the  mighty  nation  which, 
arising  according  to  the  legend  from  the  ashes  of  Troy,  be- 
came the  conqueror  and  sovereign,  not  only  of  Greece,  but 
of  the  ancient  world.  Hence  its  scope  is  larger,  its  aim 
higher  and  grander,  its  movement  slower,  and  its  end  of 
greater  significance,  than  that  of  the  Iliad. 

Thus,  while  in  form  it  is  in  many  respects  a  copy  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  in  its  essential  spirit  it  is  in  direct  con- 
trast. Hence,  while  in  those  distinguishing  qualities  which 
raise  the  Iliad  to  an  undisputed  pre-eminence,  the  ALneid 
is  inferior,  in  depth,  scope,  and  gravity  of  purpose  and  of 
thought  it  is  superior.  In  its  plan  and  execution,  in  its 
style  and  artistic  finish  as  a  poem  of  character  and  life,  it 
has  indeed  great  and  peculiar  merits ;  but  its  comprehen- 
sive excellence  is  found  in  the  grandeur  of  its  conception 
as  a  representative  epic  of  Rome. 


LI  TERA  TURE.  2/3 

Translations  by  Conington,  Cranch,  Dryclen,  and  Morris. 

Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  pp.  1387-1388. 

Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  43. 

Browne's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4. 

Collins's  Virgil  (An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

Conington :   i.  Trans,  of  the  y£neid  into  Blank  Verse. 

2.  Trans,  into  Eng.  Prose  (Misc.  Writings,  1.  114). 

3.  Works  of  Virgil,  V.  2,  Introd. 

Crusius's  Lives  of  the  Rom.  Poets  (Lond.,  1753),  1.  77-110. 

Crutwell's  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  596  ;  9th  ed.,  24.  253-255. 

Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans,  4.  442-449. 

Nettleship's  Essnys  in  Lat.  Lit.,  Ess.  6,  p.  97. 

Newman's  Grammar  of  Assent,  p.  75. 

Sellar's  Virgil  (Rom.  Poets  of  the  Aug.  Age),  Chap.  9-11. 

Shairp's  Aspects  of  Poetry,  p.  136.     Same,  in  substance,  Princ., 

N.  s.,  4.  401. 

Simcox's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Lit.,  1.  271-279. 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  3.  1266-1267. 
Teuffel's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.,  trans.,  1.  406-430. 
Wilkinson's  Prep.  Lat.  Course  in  Eng.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  Chap.  8. 
Contemp.,  30.  199.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  134.  323. 
Fortn.,  31.  163  (Myers).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  140.  643. 
Nat.  R.,  8.  98-112. 
Quar.,  101.  81-106,  Homer 'and  his  Successors  in  Epic  Poetry 

(A  comparison  between  Homer  and  Virgil :  depreciates  the 

latter). 

DANTE   AND    MILTON. 

165.    Is  the  Divine  Comedy  a  greater  poem  than  Paradise 
Lost? 

Of  the  few  great  world-poets  Dante  and  Milton  are  two 
of  the  greatest.  Each  represents  an  age,  a  nation,  a  re- 
ligion ;  yet  both  belong  to  Christianity,  to  the  world,  to  all 
time.  Each  was  possessed  of  original  genius,  large,  strong, 
and  fertile ;  while  the  minds  of  both  were  enriched  with 
the  learning  of  the  past. 

Into  the  poems  which  constitute  respectively  their  mas- 
terpieces they  have  embodied  the  learning,  the  culture,  and 
the  best  work  of  their  great  minds.  These  show  the  large- 

18 


274      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

ness,  the  fulness,  the  depth,  the  height,  and  the  power  of 
their  genius.  In  spirit  profoundly  religious,  they  embody 
thought  of  a  high  order  in  a  literary  form  of  superior  ex- 
cellence. Each  is  distinctive,  and  a  comparison  of  them 
shows  less  likeness  than  contrast. 

DANTE. 

Dante  had  a  mind  of  that  depth,  comprehension,  and 
originality  which  constitute  the  highest  genius.  As  he,  like 
other  great  minds,  stands  alone  in  solitary  grandeur,  so  his 
great  poem  stands  by  itself.  It  is  at  once  individual  and 
universal,  —  the  creation  of  a  single  great  mind,  while  rep- 
resenting all  that  is  distinctive  of  his  own  age  and  prophetic 
of  the  greater  future. 

It  is  profoundly  spiritual  and  ethical,  and  in  this  is  found 
its  note  of  universality.  The  terrible  consequences  of  sin 
and  the  glorious  rewards  of  righteousness  are  alike  vividly 
portrayed,  and  this  is  made  the  more  impressive  by  a  par- 
ticular application  to  well  known  personages.  The  future 
is  thus  made  real  in  its  close  connection  with  the  present. 

The  vision  of  the  great  poet  is  shared  by  his  readers,  and 
the  impression  is  salutary,  resulting  in  a  more  lively  sense 
of  the  positive  and  wide  distinction  between  good  and  evil. 
The  lesson  is  of  the  highest  import ;  and,  as  here  enforced 
by  a  great  poetic  genius,  must  be  universal  and  perpetual 
in  its  influence. 

Translations  of  the  Divine  Comedy  by  Gary,  by  Longfellow, 

and  by  Norton. 

Alger's  Genius  of  Solitude,  p.  213. 
Alison's  Mis.  Essays  (Philad.,  1854),  p.  380.     Same,  Blackw., 

57.  I 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist.,  Chap.  8,  sec.  4,  pp.  264-266. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  5.  669. 

Herbert  Baynes's  Dante  and  his  Ideal  (N.  Y.). 
Susan  E.  Blow's  Study  of  Dante. 
O.  Browning's  Dante,  his  Life  and  Writings  (N.  Y.). 
Calvert's  Essays  yEsthetical.  p.  114.     Same,  Putnam,  11.  155. 
Dyer's  Imitative  Art  (Lond.,  1882),  pp.  63-65. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  16.  813-° (5. 


LITERATURE.  2?$ 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  i,  sec.  208-209,  PP-  468- 

475- 

Farrar's  Sermons  and  Addresses  delivered  in  Am.  (N.Y.),  p.  295. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe.     See  Index. 

W.  T.  Harris's  The  Spiritual  Sense  of  the  Divina  Commedia. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  25. 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  2d  S.,  p.  I.     Same,  No.  Am.,  115. 

139- 
Macaulay's  Essays,  1.  55. 

Mariotti's  Italy  Past  and  Present  (Lond.,  1848),  V.  i,  2d  Pe- 
riod, Chap.  I,  pp.  110-145. 
Mrs.   Oliphant:    i.    Dante  (For.   Classics   for   Eng.   Readers), 

Chap.  3-5. 

2.    The  Makers  of  Florence,  p.  i. 
Scartazzini's  Handbook  to  Dante,  trans,  by  Davidson,  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  4. 

SchafF s  Lit.  and  Poetry  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Chap.  10. 
Sismondi's  Lit.  of  the  South  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  i, 

Chap.  9,  10. 
Symonds  :    i.  Italian  Lit.,  1.  69-84.     See  Index. 

2.  A  Study  of  Dante. 
Atlan.,  3.  62,  202,  330. 
Chr.  Exam.,  73.  363. 

Contemp ,  24  420 ;  46.  322.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  163.  84. 
Contemp.,  57.  808  (Theo.  and  Ethics  of). 
Cornh.,  12.  243.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  65.  480.    ("  He  stands  at  the 

head  of  modern  civilization,  as  Homer  stands  at  the  head 

of  ancient.") 

Ed.  R.,  29.  453  ;  30.  317  ;  42.  316  (and  Milton). 
Macmil.,  29.  554  ("  He  sums  up  in  himself  all  the  life  of  his 

time,  with  its  problems  and  its  thought  ") ;  30.  56  ("  No  poet 

has  exercised  so  wide  an  influence  ").     Same,  Eel.  M.,  82. 

764;  83.  74.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  121.  771. 
Meth.  Q.,  12.  49  ("  In  originality  and  spirituality  of  mind  Dante 

is  superior  to   Milton,  while  in  true  sublimity  and  poetic 

power  he  is  below  him.") 
Nation,  4.  369,  492;  5.  226. 
Nat.  Q.,  1.  i  ;  15.  286. 
No.  Am.,  8.  322  (Compares  with  Milton);  37.   506  ("Homer 

created    poetry  from    chaos,    Dante   from    corruption ") ; 

62.  323;  64.  97  (The  Sources  of  the  Divina  Commedia),- 

101.  509  ;  105.  124. 
No.  Brit.,  21.  451  (Am.  ed.,  p.  236. 


2/6      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

MILTON. 

Milton  had  likewise  a  large  and  lofty  mind,  which  im- 
parted greatness  to  his  productions.  This  is  seen  in  the 
conception,  scope,  action,  and  style  of  his  great  poem. 
His  range  is  wide  and  high ;  he  comprehends  in  his  view 
hell,  earth,  and  heaven.  He  has  a  clear  conception  and  a 
strong  grasp  of  his  subject,  and  his  descriptions  and  narra- 
tions are  stately  and  impressive.  His  most  obvious  char- 
acteristic is  sublimity,  but  with  this  there  is  purity  and 
elevation. 

His  subject  and  his  treatment  of  it  are  alike  worthy  of  his 
genius.  The  subject  is  of  the  highest  moral  and  religious 
import ;  and  this  he  has  clothed  in  poetic  form  and  expres- 
sion so  great  as  to  make  clear  its  beauty  and  its  grandeur. 
In  short,  for  the  instruction  and  improvement  of  mankind, 
Milton  has  made  his  masterpiece  the  repository  of  those 
great  truths  and  high  thoughts  which  filled  and  enriched 
ins  own  mind. 

Poetical  Works,  ed.  by  Masson. 

Addison's  Spectitor.     See  Index,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1301-1309. 

Arnold:   i.   Mixed  Essays,  p.  237.     ("  He  is  our  great  artist  in 
style,  our  one  first-rate  master  in  the  grand  style.") 
2.    Essays  in  Criticism,  2d  S.,  p.  56. 
Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Lect.  6. 
Bin-ell's  Obiter  Dicta.  2d  S.,  Chap.  I,  pp.  42-51. 
Mrs.  Browning's  Life,  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  V.  2, 

The  Book  of  the  Poets,  pp.  81-85. 
Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Fourth  Period,  The  Poets. 
Channing's  Works,!.  2-20.     ("His  name  is  almost  identified 

with  sublimity.") 

Chateaubriand's  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit.  (Lond.,  1837),  2.  90. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  88. 
De  Quincey's  Theol.  Essays,  2.  97. 
Encvc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  15.  20;  9th  ed  ,  16.  324. 
Gilfillan's  Literary  Men  (N.  Y.,  1860).  p.  9. 
Green  :   I.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  3.  378-380. 

2.  Short  Hist.  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  583-585. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  374-375  (Compares 

with  Dante).     See  Index. 


LITERATURE.  277 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  5.  529. 

Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets. 

Keightley's  Life,  Opinions,  and  Writings  of  Milton. 

Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters  (N.  Y.,  1854), 

3.  129. 

Lowell's  Among  My  Books.  2d  S.,  p.  252. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  1.  202.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  42.  304  (Compares 

with  Dante). 

Masson:  I.  Life  and  Times  of  Milton,  6.  518. 
2.  Three  Devils,  and  Other  Essays. 
Maurice's  Friendship  of  Books,  p.  247. 
Pattison's  Milton  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters),  Chap.  13. 
Ranke's  Hist,  of  Eng.,  trans.,  3.  590-594. 
Seeley's  Roman  Imperialism,  and  other  Lectures  and  Essays 

(Bost,  1871),  Chap.  5,  p.  129  (Poems). 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  6,  sec.  6. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  472. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  2.  300-303. 
Chr.  R.,  28.  629  (The  Miltonic  Deity). 
Contemp.,  19.  198  (The  Idealism  of  Milton  :   Dowden).     Same, 

Liv.  Age,  112.  408. 
Contemp.,  22.  427  (Bayne).     Same,  Eel.  M  ,  81.  565.     Same, 

Liv.  Age,  118.  643. 

Fortn.,  22.  767  (The  Blank  Verse  of  Milton  :   Symonds). 
Macmil.,  31.  380.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  125.  323. 
Nat.  R.,  9.  174-185. 
No.  Am.,  47.  56  (Emerson). 
No.  Brit.,  16.  295  (Am.  ed.,  p.  155) ;  30.  281  (Am.  ed.,  p.  155). 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  61.  731. 


THE  GREEK   AND   ENGLISH    DRAMATISTS. 

1 66.     Are  the   Greek  dramatic  writers  superior  to  the 
English  ? 

As  the  oration  is  for  speaking,  so  the  drama  is  for  acting, 
and  it  is  this  immediate  end  in  each  which  determines  its 
form.  Thus  the  form  of  the  drama  is  the  dialogue,  which, 
for  verbal  and  scenic  representation,  has  peculiar  advan- 
tages. It  gives  an  impressive  exhibition  of  the  varieties 
of  human  character,  of  their  relation  to  and  influence  upon 
each  other,  and  of  their  part  in  life. 


278      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Now  this  representation  in  the  drama  of  character  and 
life,  when  it  attains  a  degree  of  truth  and  excellence  which 
raises  it  from  the  local  and  transient  to  the  universal  and 
permanent,  makes  it  a  part  of  the  body  of  literature.  In- 
deed, the  drama  must  be  considered  as  that  branch  of  litera- 
ture which,  for  the  vivid  representation  of  character  and  life, 
stands  pre-eminent ;  hence  it  embraces  many  of  the  master- 
pieces of  literary  genius. 

Both  the  Greek  and  the  English  dramatic  literatures  have 
a  general  character  correspondent,  respectively,  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  age  and  nation.  Both  are  original,  and  char- 
acteristic of  the  national  mind.  For  the  comparison  the 
best  and  most  representative  writers  should  be  taken  from 
each.  From  the  Greek,  yEschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripi- 
des will  best  represent  tragedy,  and  Aristophanes  comedy ; 
while  the  Elizabethan  dramatists,  led  by  Shakespeare,  will 
best  represent  the  English.  Yet  the  comparison  should  not 
be  so  much  of  the  individuals,  as  such,  as  of  the  general 
characteristics  respectively  of  the  dramas  as  national.  It 
is  individuals,  indeed,  that  make  the  drama,  and  give  it 
character  and  excellence ;  yet  as  a  whole,  made  up  of  in- 
dividual contributions,  it  has  a  general  character. 

The  Greek  drama  is  religious  and  human,  mythological, 
ethical,  and  artistic.  In  form  it  is  simple,  in  spirit  ideal,  in 
influence  refining.  The  English  drama  is  more  varied  and 
complex,  less  religious  and  more  worldly,  and  gives  a  more 
full  and  various  representation  of  character  and  of  life. 

GREEK  DRAMATISTS. 

Anthon:  i.  Classical  Diet.,  art.  j£schylus,  Aristophanes    Eu- 
ripides, and  Sophocles. 
2.  Man.  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Chap.  22-30. 
Blackie's  Trans,  of  ^Ischylus,  2  vols. 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  46-47. 
Bulwer's  Athens  (Harper's  ed.,  2  vols.  in  i),  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  2 , 

Bk.  5,  Chap.  4. 

Browne's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  1-10. 
Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  4.  81-82. 
Coleridge's  Works  (Harper's  ed.),  4.  22-29. 


LITERATURE. 

An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers  : 

1.  W.  L.  Collins's  Aristophanes. 

2.  C.  W.  Collins's  Sophocles. 

3.  Coplestone's  ^schylus. 

4.  Donne's  Euripides. 
Donaldson's  Theatre  of  the  Greeks. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  7.  403-409,  art.  Drama:  Greek  Drama.     11.  140, 

art.  Greece :  Literature. 
Fiske's  Man.  of  Classical  Lit.,  from  Eschenburg,  Pt.  5,  Gr.  Lit., 

Chap,  i,  sec.  36-47,  pp.  457-463- 

J.  H.  Frere's  Works,  V.  3,  Translations  from  Aristophanes. 
Hazlitt's  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth, 

Lect.  8. 

Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Pt.  I,  Bk.  3. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  i,  2.  414-4:5. 
Lloyd's  Age  of  Pericles,  V.  i,  Chap.  17,  20,  24;  V.  2,  Chap.  33, 

34,  62. 

Mahaffy's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Chap.  14-22. 
Mills's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Greeks,  Lect.  10-15. 
Muller's  Hist   of  the  Lit.  of  An.  Greece  (Lond.,  1840),  V.  i, 

Chap.  21-26. 

Packard's  Studies  in  Gr.  Thought,  Chap.  4-6. 
Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Bk.  3. 
Plumptre:  i.  Tragedies  of  >Eschylus,  trans.,  with  Life. 
2.  Tragedies  of  Sophocles,  trans.,  with  Life. 
Schlegel's  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Art.  and  Lit.,  Lect.  5-13. 
Sir    Walter   Scott's    Essays   on    Chivalry,    Romance,  and   the 

Drama    (Lond.,  Chandos    Classics),  pp.   135-155.     Same, 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  8.  134-141. 
Symonds's  Studies  of  the  Gr.  Poets,  V.  i,  Chap.  7-9,  12  ;  V.  2, 

Chap.  6,  7. 

Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and   Rom.  Biog.,  art.  jEschylus,  Aristoph- 
anes, Euripides,  and  Sophocles. 
Wilkinson's  College  Gr.  Course  in  Eng.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1888), 

Chap.  5-8. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  1.  449  (Drama  of  An.  Greece). 
Westm.,  65.  188  (Am.  ed.,  p.  106),  (Athenian  Comedy). 

ENGLISH  DRAMATISTS. 

Baldwin's  Introd.  to  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  7. 

Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  46,  47. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  3d  and  4th  Periods:  Dramatists. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  4.  85-86. 


280      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Chateaubriand's  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit.,  trans.  (London,  1837;, 

V.  i,  Pt.  2,  Reign  of  Elizabeth. 
Coleridge's  Works  (Harpers  ed.),  V.  4. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  585-605. 
Dowcien's  Shakespeare     His  iMind  and  Art,  Chap.  i. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  7.  427-439  (Drama:   English)  ;  8-  419-421. 
Hazlitt :  I.  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Eliza- 
beth. 

2.  Lectures  on  the  Eng.  Comic  Writers,  Lect.  2. 
Hudson's  Shakespeare  :    His  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  1.  53- 

126,  127-258. 

Minto's  Characteristics  of  Eng.  Poets,  Chap.  6-8. 
Nicoll's  Landmarks  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  2. 
Schlegel's  Lect.  on  Dramatic  Art  and  Lit,  Lect.  22-28. 
Scott's  Essays  on  Chivalry,  Romance,  and  the  Drama,  pp.  194- 

226.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  8.  156-169. 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  2-4. 
Ulrici's  Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Art,  trans.,  V.  i,  Bk.  I,  3. 
A.  W.  Ward's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Dramatic  Lit.,  2  vols. 
Whipple  :  I.  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth. 

2.  Essays  and  Reviews,  2.  7-73. 
Cornh.,  11.   604,  706;    12.  86  (The  Eng.   Drama  during  the 

Reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James). 


ANCIENT  AND    MODERN   ORATORY. 
167.     Is  ancient  oratory  superior  to  modern? 

For  its  full  effect  oratory  requires  the  spoken  word,  the 
varied  tones  of  the  voice,  the  interest  of  the  occasion,  and 
the  power  of  the  personal  presence.  But  preserved  in 
literature,  its  power,  though  diminished,  is  not  lost.  The 
matter  and  style  which  constitute  the  printed  oration  in 
some  degree  contain  and  convey  the  spirit  and  power  of 
the  orator. 

The  orator,  like  the  poet,  is  born,  not  made ;  yet,  having 
the  natural  gift,  he  must  perfect  it  by  exercise  and  culti- 
vation. It  may,  then,  be  a  point  in  dispute  whether  the 
orators  of  Greece  and  Rome  had  a  greater  natural  gift  of 
oratory,  and  especially  whether  they  were  more  successful 
in  cultivating  it  as  an  art,  than  the  orators  of  modern 
times. 


LITER  A  TURE.  2  8 1 

The  orations  of  the  great  orators  of  Greece  and  of  Rome 
have  served  as  models  for  modern  orators.  Yet  oratory  is 
not  learned,  and  modern  oratory  is  far  from  being  a  mere 
imitation  of  ancient.  All  oratory,  modern  not  less  than  an- 
cient, is  essentially  an  inspiration.  Does  the  tide  of  inspira- 
tion run  as  high  in  modern  as  in  ancient  oratory? 

The  characteristics  of  the  great  orators  of  ancient  and 
of  modern  times  having  been  carefully  noted  and  compared, 
the  knowledge  thus  gained  will  furnish  matter  from  which 
to  form  an  intelligent  judgment  of  their  respective  merits. 

ANCIENT  ORATORY. 

J.  Q.  Adams's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Oratory  (Cambridge, 

1810),  V.  i,  Lect.  3-5. 
Anthon's  Manual  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Chap.  34. 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  25-28. 
Browne:  i.  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit..  Bk.  2,  Chap.  14-16. 

2.  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  12  ;  Bk.  2,  Chap. 

9,  10. 
Felton's  Lectures  on  An.  and  Mod.  Greece,  V.  2,  3d  Course, 

Lect.  7,  12. 
Fiske's  Manual  of  Classical  Lit.,  Ft.  5,  Gr.  Lit.,  Chap.  2;  Rom. 

Lit.,  Chap.  2. 

Forsyth's  Hortensius  (Am.  ed.,  Hist,  of  Lawyers),  Chap.  2,  5. 
Hadley's  Essays  Philological  and  Critical,  p.  349. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works  (Bost,  1854),  V.  3,  Pt.  i,  Ess.  13. 
Jehb's  Attic  Orators,  2  vols.,  esp.  the  Introd. 
Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit,  Pt.  2,  Bk.  2. 
Macaulay's  Essays   (N.  Y.,  1874),   1.    139  (On   the  Athenian 

Orators). 

Mahaffy's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Chap.  4,  6,  8,  II,  12. 
Mathews's  Oratory  and  Orators,  pp.  33-45. 
Simcox's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2. 
Bib.  Sac.,  23.  123  (Cicero  and  the  Ciceronian  Style). 
Blackw.,  68.  645  (An.  and  Mod.  Eloquence).     Same,  Eel.  M., 

23,  17.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  29.  193. 
Brit.  Q.,  31,  1-32.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  50.  145. 
Eel.  M.,  60.  345-347- 
Ed.  R.,  36.  82  (The  Greek  Orators). 
Quar.,  27.  382  (Panegyrical  Oratory  of  Greece);  29.  313  (Legal 

Oratory  of  Greece). 


282       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


MODERN  ORATORY. 

Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  26. 

Forsyth's  Hortensius  (Am.  ed.,  Hist,  of  Lawyers),  Chap.  7,  8. 

Goodrich's  Select  British  Eloquence. 

Jebb's  Attic  Orators,  V.  I,  Introd.     See  Contents. 

Mathews's  Oratory  and  Orators,  Chap.  9-13. 

May's  Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1.  450-463. 

Moore's  Am.  Eloquence,  2  vols. 

Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  Am.,  V.  2,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  21. 

Bib.  Sac.,  29.  22  (Eng.  Eloquence  and  Debate). 

Blackw.,  68.  645.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  23.  17.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
29.  193. 

Brit.  Q.,  31.  32-52.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  50.  385. 

Chr.  R.,  18.  481  (Brit.  Eloquence). 

Eel.  M.,  60.  347-355- 

Quar.,  64.  411  (French  Orators  and  Oratory) ;  67.  I  (Am.  Ora- 
tors and  Statesmen). 

Westm.,  99.  36  (Am.  ed.,  p.  17),  Parliamentary  Eloquence. 


DEMOSTHENES   AND    CICERO. 
1 68.    Was  Demosthenes  a  greater  orator  than  Cicero  ? 

Demosthenes  and  Cicero  are  the  best  representatives, 
respectively,  of  two  distinct  types  of  oratory.  In  the  one, 
the  art  is  more  concealed,  the  orator  is  the  impersonation 
of  his  subject,  and  the  impression  is  more  of  the  thought 
than  of  the  speaker  or  of  his  style.  In  the  other,  the  art  is 
more  apparent,  the  orator  more  self-conscious,  and  the  im- 
pression he  makes  one  of  admiration  for  himself  along  with 
a  sense  of  the  importance  of  the  subject.  Of  these  two 
kinds  of  oratory  the  first  must  be  regarded  as  the  superior; 
yet  the  second  is  much  the  more  common,  and  in  its  wider 
adaptation  may  produce  the  larger  effect. 

The  distinction,  therefore,  between  the  two  great  orators 
is  individual,  national,  and  generic.  Each  was  himself,  fitted 
to  his  own  time  and  work  and  to  his  own  people ;  and  each 
stands  as  the  best  of  his  own  class  of  oratorical  minds. 


LITER  A  TURE.  283 

DEMOSTHENES. 

In  a  just  estimate  of  the  oratory  of  Demosthenes,  much 
consideration  must  be  given  to  his  personal  character  and 
his  eventful  career.  Not  only  did  he  show  diligence  and 
perseverance  in  the  mastery  of  his  art,  but  all  the  enthu- 
siasm of  his  ardent  nature  was  enlisted  in  the  promotion  of 
a  great  cause.  He  was  even  more  of  a  patriot  and  states- 
man than  of  an  orator.  His  life  was  spent  in  the  vain 
attempt  to  maintain  the  liberty  of  his  country  against  the 
encroachments  of  a  powerful  and  insidious  foe.  This  fur- 
nished not  only  the  occasion  and  the  subjects  of  his  ora- 
tions, but  was  their  great  motive  force.  In  this  he  found 
an  urgent  necessity  for  the  utmost  effort. 

Hence  his  own  mind  was  absorbed  in  his  subject,  and 
it  was  with  this  that  he  filled  the  thoughts  and  fired  the 
hearts  of  his  hearers.  The  vehemence  of  his  spirit  was 
manifested  in  his  words,  tones,  and  gestures;  the  con- 
densation of  his  style  exhibits  the  concentration  and  in- 
tensity of  his  thought ;  the  gravity  of  his  cause  imparted 
seriousness  to  his  utterances. 

His  orations  were  practical,  made  with  the  intent  of 
urging  to  action.  His  cause  was  foredoomed  to  failure, 
yet  his  orations  were  nevertheless  a  glorious  success. 
They  are  lasting  monuments  of  the  height  and  power  of 
oratory  when  inspired  by  a  lofty,  earnest,  and  resolute 
purpose. 

Orations,  trans,  by  Leland  (Lond.,  1828). 
Oration  on  the  Crown,  trans,  by  Lord  Brougham. 
Anthon:  i.  Classical  Diet,  p.  428. 

2.  Man.  of  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  283. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  p.  797. 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  25. 
Browne's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  16.   . 
Curtius's  Hist,  of  Greece,  V.  5.     See  Index. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  7.  729  ;  gth  ed.,  7.  72. 
Felton's  Greece,  An.  and  Mod.,  V.  2,  3d  Course,  Lect.  12.     See 

also  Index. 
Grote's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed),  V.  n,  12.     See  Index. 


284      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Heeren's  An.  Greece,  trans.,  Bost.,  1824,  pp.  275-282;  Lond., 

1847,  pp.  186-191. 

Hume's  Philosophical  Works  (Bost,  1854),  3.  112. 
Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4-6. 
Mahaffy's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Chap.  u. 
Mathews's  Oratory  and  Orators.     See  Index. 
Niebuhr's  Lect.  on  An.  Hist.,  trans.  (Philad.,  1852),  2.  323-328. 
Plutarch:  I.  Lives:  Demosthenes. 

2,  Morals,  trans.  (Bost.,  1878),  5.  43.     Same,  Essays, 

trans.  (Bost.,  1881),  pp.  369-379. 
Rollin's  An.  Hist.     See  Index. 

Philip  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World:  An.  Hist,  V.  2.     See  Index. 
Wm.  Smith:  i.  Diet  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  987-988. 

2.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.).     See  Index. 
Thirlwall's  Hist,  of  Greece.     See  Index. 
Bib.  Sac.,  4.  252 ;  27.  491 ;  28.  134-136. 
Chr.  R.,  9.  114. 
Ed.  R.,  33.  226 ;  36.  483. 
Evang.  R.,  9.  586. 
No.  Am.,  22.  34. 
New  York  R.,  9.  i. 
Penny  M.,  7.  445,453- 
Westm.,  33.  324  (Am.  ed.,  p.  175). 

CICERO. 

Cicero,  first  of  all  an  orator,  was  yet  a  man  of  diverse 
capacity  and  varied  attainments,  all  of  which  contributed 
to  his  oratory.  Conscious,  like  Demosthenes,  of  oratorical 
powers,  he  had  a  like  earnest  care  to  perfect  himself  in  his 
chosen  art. 

In  his  orations  he  studied  method,  order,  harmony,  pro- 
gress, and  a  cumulative  effect.  He  sought  rather  to  attract 
and  please,  and  thus  to  win,  than  to  overcome  by  sheer 
force  of  argument. 

Less  simple  and  severe  than  Demosthenes,  he  was  more 
affluent  in  language,  and  in  style  more  ornate.  His  ora- 
tions have  not  tht  same  general  unity,  but  are  more  varied 
in  their  subjects.  Less  a  statesman,  in  a  critical  period  of 
his  country's  history  he  had  an  important  part  in  public 
affairs.  He  was  on  the  whole  less  courageous  and  stead- 
fast in  purpose,  yet  on  certain  occasions  he  manifested  a 


LITERATURE.  285 

boldness  which  brought  him  success.  His  orations,  judged 
by  their  influence,  make  him  not  unworthy  to  be  compared 
with  his  renowned  predecessor. 

Orations,  trans.,  Bonn's  ed. 

J.  Q.  Adams's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Oratory  (Cambridge, 

Mass.,  1810),  V.  i,  Lect.  5. 
Anthon's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  347. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  4.  574-576. 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect.  26. 

Browne's  Rom.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  10,  pp.  332-340. 
Crutwell's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  369-374. 
Dunlop's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.  (Philad.,  1825),  2.  133  et  seq. 
Forsyth  :  I.  Life  of  Cicero,  esp.  2.  326-327. 

2.  Hortensius,  3d  ed.   (Lond.,   1879),   pp.    143-174. 
Same,  with  different  title,  Hist,  of  Lawyers  (N.Y., 
1875),  PP-  136-166. 
Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,  trans.  (Harper's 

ed),  1.  335- 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  1.  199-203. 
Mathews's  Oratory  and  Orators.     See  Index. 
Newman's  Historical  Sketches,  2.  291-297. 
Plutarch's  Lives :  Cicero. 
Simcox's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Lit.,  1.  177-179. 
Smith's  Dirt,  of  Or.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  740-742. 
Teuffel's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1873),  *•  2^5- 
Bib.  Sac.,  28.  123. 
No.  Am.,  46.  20. 


THUCYDIDES   AND   TACITUS. 
169.    Was  Thucydides  a  greater  historian  than  Tacitus  1 

The  art  of  writing  history  raises  it  to  the  rank  of  litera- 
ture. It  is  literary,  not  from  its  matter,  but  from  the  finish 
of  its  style.  The  degree  of  an  historian's  excellence  is,  there- 
fore, determined  by  the  manner  in  which  he  tells  his  facts. 
He  must  indeed  be  truthful,  that  he  may  be  trusted  :  but 
imagination  may  impart  a  vividness  to  facts  which,  without 
impairing  their  reality,  shall  greatly  increase  their  force  and 
impressiveness. 


286      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

History  is  concrete,  but  it  may  also  be  philosophical. 
As  such  it  presents  facts,  not  merely  in  respect  to  their 
occurrence,  but  in  their  true  relation  and  significance. 

Thucydides  and  Tacitus  both  possessed  the  highest 
qualities  for  writing  history,  with  differences  pertaining  to 
their  individual  minds  and  to  the  times  in  which  they 
severally  lived. 

THUCYDIDES. 

Thucydides  has  shown  in  his  immortal  work  the  char- 
acteristics of  an  historian  of  the  first  rank  :  diligence  in  col- 
lecting, and  accuracy  and  impartiality  in  narrating  facts ;  a 
philosophical  mind  which  looks  in  history  for  causes,  and 
thus  makes  it  instructive ;  and  a  style  grave,  expressive, 
and  concise. 

His  history  is  weighty  with  the  thought  of  a  keen  and 
penetrating  intellect  and  of  a  clear  and  dispassionate 
judgment.  Fact  and  thought  compose  it :  fact  the  basis  of 
thought,  thought  the  interpretation  of  fact ;  fact  worthy  of 
acceptance,  thought  which  gives  to  fact  its  highest  value. 
It  was  the  thought  which  he  found  in  the  fact  which  gave 
him  a  sense  of  its  importance,  and  in  this  sense  lies  the 
secret  of  his  merit  as  an  historian. 

With  the  prevision  of  genius,  he  worked  and  wrote  for 
the  immortality  which  he  has  gained. 

Thucydides.  trans,  into  English  by  Jowett,  Am.  ed.  (Bost,  1883). 
Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Literature,  p.  97. 
Anthon:   I    Classical  Diet.,  p    1334- 

2.  Manual  of  Gr.   Lit.   (N.  Y.,  1853),  Chap.  32,  pp. 

235-236. 
Browne's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  12  ("The  thoughtful 

inventor  of  philosophical  history  "). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  240;  9th  ed.,  23.  322  ("The  greatest 

historian  of  antiquity"). 
Felton's  An.  and  Mod.  Greece.     See  Index. 
Freeman's  Historical  Essays,  2d  S.,  Ess.  3.     Same,  Nat.  R., 

6.  73-84- 
Grote's  Hist,  of  Greece.     See  Index. 


LITER  A  TURE-  287 

Jevons's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  Bk  I,  Chap.  3.  Compares  with  Taci- 
tus, pp.  346-348. 

Macaulay's  Ess.ays,  art.  Hist.,  1.  385-393. 

Mahaffy:  I.  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Chap.  5,  p.  121.  ("  In  acute- 
ness  of  observation,  in  intellectual  force  and 
breadth,  in  calmness  of  judgment,  in  dignity 
of  language,  there  has  never  been  a  historian 
greater  than  Thucydides.") 

2.  Social  Life  in  Greece,  Chap.  6. 

3.  Prolegomena  to  An.  Hist.,  Ess.  I. 
Mure's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  V.  5,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  8-10. 
Niebuhr's  Lectures  on  An.  Hist.,  trans.  (Philad.,  1852).     See 

Index. 
Wm.  Smith  :   i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  3.  1112. 

2.  Hist  of  Greece,   Felton's  ed.  (Bost.,  1855), 

Chap.  35,  sec.  8,  pp.  385-386. 
White's  Classical  Lit.,  p.  170. 
Bib.  Sac.,  5.  481,  The  Orations  of. 
Blackvv.,  49.  1 14,  The  Speeches  in. 

Brit.  Q.,  66.  55  (Am.  ed.,  p.  25),  The  Athens  of.  74.  379 
(Am.  ed.,  p.  196). 

TACITUS. 

Amid  the  general  corruption  of  the  times  Tacitus  pre- 
served the  purity  of  his  own  mind.  Yet  he  was  not  unaf- 
fected. His  writings  reveal  a  mind  saddened  and  darkened 
by  the  sight  of  wickedness  in  high  places.  They  give  the 
impressions  of  a  mind  profoundly  moral.  They  show  like- 
wise intellect  of  the  first  order.  They  deal  with  persons, 
with  character,  evince  an  insight  into  motives,  and  point  out 
the  general  spirit  and  the  downward  course  of  the  times. 
They  are  marked  with  moral  dignity,  and  made  effective 
by  a  style  concise  and  pregnant  with  meaning. 

The  times  were  to  him  a  problem,  for  whose  solution  his 
mind  labored;  hence  his  histories  are  pervaded  by  the 
philosophic  thought  awakened  by  his  musing  on  their  facts. 
The  thought  is  used  not  so  much  to  make  clear  the  fact 
as  to  show  its  character.  The  moral  purpose  is  everywhere 
manifest. 

His  works  are  for  thinking  men,  who  rate  thought  at  its 


288      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

essential  worth,  and  who  estimate  the  value  of  a  book  by 
its  thought.  Even  to  such  minds  they  are  a  study,  but  a 
study  which  at  once  excites  and  satisfies  the  mind. 

History  of,  and  Annals  of,  both  translated  by  Church  and  Broad- 
ribb. 

Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Lit.,  p.  133. 

Ambon's  Classical  Diet.,  p.  1279. 

Browne's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  6. 

Crutwell's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  7,  p.  449. 

Donne's  Tacitus  (An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

Duruy's  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.,  Imperial  ed.  (Bost.,  1883),  V.  6, 
sec.  2,  pp.  338-340. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  2  ;  9th  ed.,  23. 19.  ("  The  famous  Ro- 
man historian,  Tacitus,  who  ranks  beyond  dispute  in  the 
highest  place  among  men  of  letters  in  all  ages.") 

Furneaux's  Annals  of  Tacitus  (Ox.,  1884),  Introd. 

Gibbon's  Rome  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  250.  ("  The  first  of  historians 
who  applied  the  science  of  philosophy  to  the  study  of 
facts.") 

Macaulay's  Essays,  art.  Hist.,  1.  406-409. 

Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans,  7.  234-247,  273-275. 

Montaigne's  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1861),  ¥.3,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  8,  pp.  241- 
244. 

Niebuhr's  Lectures  on  the  Hist,  of  Rome,  trans.  (Lond.,  1870), 
Lect.  123,  131,  pp.  683,  721-722.  ("One  of  those  mighty 
minds  who  exercise  a  great  influence  upon  their  age  with- 
out being  the  creatures  of  it") 

Simcox's  Hist  of  Lat.  Lit,  V.  2,  Pt  6,  Chap.  5. 

P.  Smith's  An.  Hist.,  3.  359.  note. 

Wm.  Smith :  i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Bio?.,  3.  968. 

2.  Tacitus  (Lond.,  1872).     Contains  his  Life,  ai.d 
an  analysis  of  his  style. 

Teuffel's  Hist,  of  Lat  Lit,  trans.  (Lond.,  1873),  V.  2,  Par.  328- 
334,  pp.  163-186. 

White's  Classic  Lit,  p.  352. 

Fraser,  40.  86.  ("  He  is  the  most  remarkable  instance  in  an- 
cient literature  of  the  faculty  of  representation  :  that  is.  the 
power  of  giving  presence  and  palpability  to  the  distant 
and  the  past") 

No.  Am.,  6.  324. 


LITER  A  TURK.  2  89 


ELIZABETHAN,  VICTORIAN,   AND   AUGUSTAN 
LITERATURE. 

170.    Is  the  Elizabethan  literature  superior  to  the 
Victorian  ? 

Literature  is  at  once  a  product  and  a  factor ;  it  is  there- 
fore as  its  age,  and  it  helps  to  make  its  age.  If  we  con- 
sider literature  in  its  actuality,  we  must  turn  to  its  individual 
creators  and  their  productions ;  but  these  are  affected  by 
the  manifold  influences  of  their  time,  and  in  turn  take  their 
place  among  its  living  and  productive  forces.  Thus  litera- 
ture comes  to  have  a  history,  with  its  distinctive  epochs. 

The  Elizabethan  period  is  as  marked  and  brilliant  in 
literature  as  in  other  respects.  Its  general  characteristics 
are  clear  and  well  defined.  It  has  an  exuberant  and  free 
productiveness.  The  drama  is  especially  prominent. 

The  Victorian  age  is  too  near  to  study  with  the  best  ef- 
fect. Of  literature,  as  of  other  things,  time  is  the  test. 
There  has  been  a  progress  in  general  thought  and  in  soci- 
ety toward  democracy,  or  a  greater  equality,  and  in  science 
and  material  interests.  As  a  consequence,  literature  is  in- 
creased in  quantity,  but  it  is  its  quality  that  must  determine 
its  degree  of  excellence.  If  intelligence  is  more  general,  is 
it  as  high  ?  Fiction  has  largely  superseded  the  drama,  —  is 
this  an  improvement?  Society  is  more  complex,  literature 
more  varied.  In  general,  if  the  age  is  on  the  whole  better, 
does  it  follow  that  literature  is  also  on  the  whole  better? 

The  Augustan  age  marks  the  height  alike  of  Roman 
civilization  and  of  Roman  literature.  Its  literature  was  a 
literature  of  cultivation,  of  refinement,  of  art,  but  not  of 
freedom. 

ELIZABETHAN  LITERATURE. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Third  Period. 
Encyc.  Brit,  8.  417-423. 

Green:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  V.  2,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  7. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Chap.  7,  sec.  7. 

19 


290      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Hazlitt's  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth. 
("  There  is  no  time  more  populous  of  intellect,  or  more  pro- 
ductive of  intellectual  wealth.") 

Minto's  Characteristics  of  Eng.  Poets,  Chap.  4-8. 

H.  Morley :  I.  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  7,  8. 

2.  Eng.  Lit.  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria,  Chap.  2. 

Morley  and  Tyler's  Manual  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  1-7. 

Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Elizabethan  Lit. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  1-4. 

Warton's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Poetry,  sec.  61. 

Whipple's  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth.  Originally  published 
in  Atlan.,  V.  19-22.  ("  The  most  glorious  of  all  the  expres- 
sions of  the  human  mind.") 

Brit.  Q.,  42.  29  (Elizabethan  Poetry).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  65.  465. 

Ed.  R.,  18.  275-278,  285-288. 

VICTORIAN  LITERATURE. 

Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  546. 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  I,  Chap. 

29,  p.  524;  V.  2,  Chap.  67,  p.  629. 
Morley  :  i.  Eng.  Lit  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria. 

2.  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  13. 
Stedman's  Victorian  Poets.      First  published   in   Scrib.   Mo., 

V.  5-10. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  V.  2,  Chap.  6. 
Ward's  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  2.  445,  561. 

For  Victorian  substitute 


AUGUSTAN  LITERATURE. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  195. 

Crutwell's  Hist  of  Rom.  Lit,  Bk.  2,  Pt  2. 

Encyc.  Brit,  art  Rom.  Lit.,  20.  721. 

Merivale's  Hist  of  the  Romans  (N.  Y.),  V.  4,  Chap.  41,  pp. 
435-466. 

Simcox's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Lit,  V.  i,  Pt.  3.  ("Its  literature  repre- 
sents the  highest  elaboration  of  form  ever  attained  in  Latin, 
and  the  highest  elevation  of  thought.") 

Teuffel's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.  (Lond.,  1873),  *•  384. 


LITERATURE.  29 1 

CHAUCER   AND   SPENSER. 
171.    Is  Chaucer  a  greater  poet  than  Spenser*} 

Chaucer  and  Spenser  appear  in  contrast,  yet  not  so  much 
in  opposition  as  complementary.  Chaucer  is  the  poet  of 
the  real,  of  actual  life  and  character ;  Spenser  of  the  ideal, 
of  the  spiritual.  Hence  Chaucer  is  more  outward  and 
worldly,  Spenser  more  inward  and  unworldly.  Chaucer 
presents  a  pleasing  array  of  life-like  pictures ;  Spenser's 
imagination  teems  with  an  endless  succession  of  fancies. 
Chaucer  is  more  on  a  level  with  men,  and  knows  and 
is  known  by  them;  while  Spenser  attracts  and  draws 
upward. 

CHAUCER. 

Chaucer  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  one  of  the  greatest 
of  English  poets,  and  has  been  justly  named  "  the  father 
of  English  poetry." 

A  lover  of  nature  and  of  man,  his  spirit  is  joyous  and 
free.  He  excels  in  description  and  in  the  painting  of 
character.  His  poetry  is  neither  deep  nor  high ;  but  it 
is  large,  full,  various,  living,  inspiring.  It  is  the  poetry  of 
humanity  and  of  life.  He  is  genial  and  sympathetic,  and 
even  his  satire  is  without  a  sting.  A  man  of  the  world  who 
tasted  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  he  goes  down  through  all 
time  for  what  he  was  in  himself. 

Poetical  Works:  I.  Tyrwhitt's  ed.  (Lond.),  I  vol. 

2.  Oilman's  ed.,  with  Life  (Bost.),  3  vols. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  373. 
I>ascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit,  Lect.  3. 
Mrs.  Browning's  Life.  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  V.  2, 

The  Book  of  the  Poets,  p.  12. 
Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit,  V.  I,  First  Period. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  1.  266. 
Disraeli's  Amenities  of  En?.  Lit,  1.  184. 
Ellis's  Specimens  of  the  Early  Eng.  Poets  (Lond.,  1811),  V.  I, 

Chap.  8. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  6.  432 ;  9th  ed.,  5.  449. 


2Q2      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Green  :   i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  502-509. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Lond.,  1875,  pp.  213- 

216;  Harper's  ed.,  pp.  236-240. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe      See  Index. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  26. 
Lounsbury's  Studies  in  Chaucer,  3  vols.  (N.  Y.,  1891). 
Lowell  s  My  Study  Windows,  p.  227.     Same,  No.  Am.,  111.  155. 
Minto's  Characteristics  of  Eng.  Poets,  Chap.  i. 
11.  Morley  :  I.  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  4. 

2.  Eng.  Writers,  V.  5,  Chap  6-13. 

3.  Shorter  Eng.  Poems,  Chap.  4. 
Morley  and  Tyler's  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  i. 

Maude  G.  Phillips 's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  1.  31. 

Reed's  Lectures  on  the  Eng.  Poets,  Y.  i,  Lect.  3. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3. 

Thoreau's  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimac  Rivers,  pp.  386- 

393- 

A.  W.  Ward's  Chaucer  (English  Men  of  Letters  S.). 
Thos.  H.  Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  1.  i. 
Warton's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Poetry,  sec.  12-18. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  204. 
Bib.  Sac.,  11.  394. 
Blackw.,  2.  558  (Chaucer  and  Spenser :  Hazlitt)  ;  57.  617  ;  58. 

114. 

Macmil.,  24.  268.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  110.  738. 
No.  Brit.,  1O.  293  (Am.  ed.,  p.  158).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  17.  64. 
Penny  M.,  10.  65-495.     See  Index.     14.  65-497.    See  Index. 
Quar.,  134.  225  (Chaucer  and  Shakespeare),  (Am.  ed.,  p.  119). 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  117.  195. 
Retros.,  9.  172. 
Westm.,  86.   184  (Am.  ed.,  p.  83).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  67.  684. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  111.  416. 
Westm.,  96.  381  (Am.  ed.,  p.  183). 

SPENSER. 

Spenser,  though  unlike  Chaucer,  deserves,  from  his  ex- 
cellence and  eminence,  to  be  classed  with  him.  For  the 
beauty  and  elevation  of  his  writings  he  has  been  named 
"the  poet  of  poets."  In  spirit  he  was  moral  and  religious. 
Inspired  by  the  better  side  of  chivalry,  he  led  on  to  the 
moral  purity  and  earnestness  of  Puritanism.  Represent- 
ing the  better  spirit  of  his  age,  he  won  the  hearts  of  his 


LITER  A  TURE.  293 

contemporaries,  and  made  for  himself  a  name  noble  and 
lasting. 

He  took  from  his  predecessors  and  gave  to  his  suc- 
cessors. The  great  poets  who  followed  him  drank  freely 
of  his  spirit.  The  exuberance  of  his  fancy  gave  luxuriance 
to  his  style.  He  dwelt  in  an  ideal  world,  which  to  his 
readers  he  makes  as  real  as  it  was  to  himself. 


Poetical  Works:  I.  Hillard's  ed.  (Bost.,  1839),  5  vols 

2.  Child's  ed.,  Brit.  Poets  (Bost..  1855),  5  vols. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  2202. 
Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Lect.  5. 
Mrs.  Browning's  Life,  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  V.  2, 

The  Book  of  the  Poets,  pp.  38-42. 
Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit,  Third  Period. 
Chateaubriand's  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit.,  trans.   (Lond.,   1837), 

1.  225. 

Church's  Spenser  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.). 
Craik:   I.  Spenser  and  his  Poetry,  3  vols. 

2.  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  1.  506. 
Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  109,  126. 
Ellis's  Specimens  of  the  Early  Eng.  Poets  (Lond.,  1811),  2.  232. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  20.  505;  9th  ed.,  22.  392. 
Green  :  I.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  462-467. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People,  Chap.  7,  sec.  7,  Eng. 

ed.,  pp.  413-417;  Harper's  ed.,  pp.  423-427. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe.     See  Index. 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  2d  S.,  p.  125.     Same,  No.  Am., 

120.  334. 

Maurice's  Friendship  of  Books,  Lect.  8,  p.  319. 
Minto's  Characteristics  of  Eng.  Poets,  Chap.  4. 
H.  Morley:  i.  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  441-457. 

2.  Shorter  Eng.  Poems,  Chap.  11.,  sec    I,  p.  203. 
Morley  and  Tyler's  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  p.  239. 
Maude  G.   Phillips's  Pop.    Man.  of  Eng.   Lit.   (N.  Y.,    1885), 

1.   129. 

Reed's  Lectures  on  the  Brit.  Poets,  Lect.  4. 
Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Elizabethan  Lit.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1887) 

Chap.  4. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  180-200. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  1.  275  (Church). 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  358. 


294    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Whipple's  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,  p.  189.     Same,  Atlan., 

21.  395. 

And.  R.,  12.  372. 

Blackw.,  34.  824;    36.  408,  681,  715  ;    37.  49,  540,  659. 
Blackw.,  99.  200.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  88.  673. 
Chr.  Exam.,  28.  208. 
Cornh.,  39.  663  (Heroines  of  Spenser:    Dowden).     Same,  Liv. 

Age,  141.  771. 

Eel.  M.,  64.  210  (As  a  Sacred  Poet). 
Ed.  R.,  7.  203 ;  25.  59  (Spenser  and  Chaucer). 
Ed.  R.,  161.  142  (As  a  Philosophical  Poet).     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

164   579. 

New  York  R.,  8.  50. 
No.  Am.,  50.  174.         Putnam,  5.  31. 
Retros.,  12.  142  (Minor  Poems). 
Westm.,  87.  133  (Am.  ed.,  p.  60). 

SHAKESPEARE  AND   GOETHE. 
172.    Was  Shakespeare  a  greater  genius  than  Goethe  ? 

In  the  objectivity  of  his  writings  Shakespeare  has 
reached  the  height  of  genius ;  while  in  the  subjectivity  of 
his  writings  Goethe  has  shown  the  capacity,  the  growth, 
and  the  wide  and  varied  culture  of  a  great  mind.  Shake- 
speare, in  the  quiet  pursuit  of  a  practical  purpose,  pro- 
duced masterpieces  of  genius  which  are  the  wonder  of 
the  world ;  Goethe,  with  a  steadfast  devotion  to  culture 
and  to  the  great  work  of  his  life,  wrought  out,,  in  a  variety 
of  literary  forms,  works  of  the  highest  excellence,  showing 
^the  scope  and  power  of  his  genius.  In  Shakespeare's 
dramas  the  extremes,  and  all  varieties,  of  character  and  of 
life  are  represented  with  striking  fidelity;  while  the  writ- 
ings of  Goethe  have  had  a  controlling  influence  on  mod- 
ern thought  in  its  essential  spirit.  Both  were  possessed  of 
hrge  receptivity  and  high  creative  power ;  and  each,  in  a 
different  way,  gave  clear  proof  of  great  genius. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

The  dramas  of  Shakespeare  are  especially  characterized 
by  their  objectivity ;  that  is,  by  their  clear  representation 


LITER  A  TURE.  295 

of  the  subject  unmingled  with  the  personal  characteristics 
of  the  author's  own  mind.  In  this  way  it  comes  to  pass 
that  Shakespeare  is,  in  his  works,  at  once  unknown  and 
well  known.  Himself  he  transforms  into  his  characters, 
becoming  each  of  them  in  turn,  so  that  it  is  these  that 
are  known.  But  in  the  knowing  of  them,  taken  singly 
and  together  and  considered  in  their  variety  and  perfec- 
tion, there  is  revealed  as  their  creator  a  mind  of  matchless 
genius.  Compared  with  this  revelation  of  the  breadth, 
depth,  versatility,  and  amazing  productiveness  of  his  mind, 
the  few  details  of  his  personal  history  which  can  be  verified 
seem  insignificant  and  incongruous. 

The  genius  of  Shakespeare,  then,  is  coincident  with  his 
incomparable  productions.  These  are  his  indubitable,  last- 
ing, and  glorious  monument,  and  as  they  grow  upon  the 
world  his  fame  grows  with  them.  What  they  are,  he  is ; 
and  the  perfection  of  his  genius  is  manifest  in  this,  that  he 
was  what  he  wrote.  It  is  in  this  way  that,  notwithstanding 
the  objectiveness  of  his  writings,  he  is  yet  so  absolutely 
identified  with  them. 

He  had  a  mind  so  comprehensive,  complete,  and  original 
that,  while  appropriating  materials  which  he  found,  he  trans- 
formed them  by  the  energy  of  his  genius  into  new  and  won- 
derful creations.  Yet  he  is  human,  and  has  his  limitations. 
If  in  his  own  sphere  he  is  unapproachable,  his  sphere  is  not 
all-comprehensive. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  2023-2031.     Crit.  Opinions. 
Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  117-127. 
Bryant's  Prose  Writings  (N.  Y.,  1884),  2.  300. 
Chateaubriand's  Sketches   of  Eng.  Lit.,  trans.  (London,  1837), 

1.  229. 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Memorial  and  Biographical  Sketches,  p.  303. 
Coleridge's  Works  (Harper's  ed.),  4.  46-67. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  1.  585.    ("  Apart  from  his  dramatic 

power,  he  is  the  greatest  poet  that  ever  lived.") 
De  Quincey's  Writings  (Bost.,  1860),  Biographical  Essays,  pp. 

72-86.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  20.  85-89. 
Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  186. 
Dowden's  Shakespeare:  his  Mind  and  Art.,  Chap.  I,  2. 


296      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Emerson's  Representative  Men.     Prose  Works,  2.  103. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  21.  737. 

Gervinus's  Shakespeare  Commentaries,  trans.,  p.  830. 

Giles's  Human  Life  in  Shakespeare. 

Goethe's  Conversations  with  Eckermann,  trans.  (Lond.,  1879), 

Dec.  25,  1825,  pp.  163-164.     Same,  Blackie's  Wisdom  of 

Goethe  (N.  Y.,  1883),  pp.  139-140. 
Green  :  I.  Hist  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  Bk.  6,  Chap. 

7,  pp.  472-485- 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Eng.  ed.),  Chap.  7, 

sec.  7,  pp.  421-428  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  430-436. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe,  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  I,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  6, 

sec.  34-53,  pp.  371-377- 
Hudson's  Shakespeare  ;  his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  art.  1. 

127-258. 
Victor  Hugo's  William  Shakespeare,  trans.  (Chicago,   1887), 

Pt  2,  Bk.  i,  2;   Pt.  3,  Bk.  i. 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  ist  S.,  p.  151,  2  articles  in  i.    Same, 

Allan,  3.  in,  and  No.  Am.,  106.  629. 
Masson's  Three  Devils  and  other  Essays,  p.  67.    Same,  Brit.  Q., 

16.  515-532.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  36.  605-612. 
Minto's  Characteristics  of  Eng.  Poets,  Chap.  7. 
Moulton's  Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic  Artist,  2d  ed.  rev.  (Ox., 

1888). 

Miiller's  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  3.  214. 
Maude  G.  Phillips's  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  1.  171 
Salisbury's  Hist,  of  Elizabethan  Lit.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1877), 

Chap.  5. 

Schlegel's  Dramatic  Art  and  Lit,  Lect  22-23 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4. 
Ulrici's  Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Art,  V.  i,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  5-8. 
A.  W.  Ward's  Hist  of  Eng.  Dramalic  Lit,  V.  i,  Chap.  4,  esp. 

pp.  502-513. 

Thos.  W.  Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  1.  435  (Dowden). 
Welsh's  Developmenl  of  the  Eng.  Lit.  and  Lang.,  1.  373 
Whipple's  Lit.  of  tye  Age  of  Elizabelh,  p.  32      Same,  Allan., 

19.  715;  20.  i7S. 
White's  Life  and  Genius  of  Shakespeare.     Same,  White's  ed.  of 

Shakespeare's  Works,  V.  I.   ("  Homer  and  Dante  saw  ;  he 

not  only  saw,  but  was.") 
Allan..  3.  657. 
Blackw.,  69.  647-651 

Cent,  7.  780  (The  Worship  of  Shakespeare), 
Chr.   Exam.,  67.   178.     Same,  Giles's   Human   Life  in  Shake- 

spenre,  Chap.  i. 


LITER  A  TURE.  297 

Contemp.,  43.  883.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  101.  240. 

Fortn.,  23.  613;  25.  24  (Swinburne). 

Fortn.,  50.  405  (Dowden).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  179.  131.     Same, 

Eel.  M.,  111.  668. 
Nation,  1.  23. 

National,  6.  384.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  106.  86. 
Nat.  Q.,  17.  227. 

New  Eng.,  40.  304  (Shakespeare  in  the  I7th  Century). 
No.  Am.,  85.  490. 
No.  Brit.,  12.  115  (Am.  ed.,  p.  62). 
Quar.,  131.  I.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  513,  732. 
Retros.,  7.  378  (Poems  of  Shakespeare). 

GOETHE. 

The  life  and  personality  of  Goethe  are  well  known,  and 
have  an  inseparable  connection  with  his  writings.  His  life 
was  devoted  to  thought,  to  writing,  and  to  self-development, 
or  self-culture ;  and  the  development  of  his  mind,  or  the 
progress  of  his  thought,  is  coincident  with  the  order  or  suc- 
cession of  his  productions.  Absorbed  in  the  consciousness 
of  his  own  inner  life,  his  aim  was  concentrated  on  the  pro- 
motion of  his  growth  to  perfection.  Hence  his  writings 
are  subjective,  as  identified  with  his  life,  both  inner  and 
outer. 

Goethe  is  one  of  the  best  representatives  of  the  modern 
mind  in  its  distinctive  spirit,  thought,  and  tendency.  He 
has,  in  a  large  degree,  its  comprehension,  its  manifoldness, 
its  freedom  and  independence,  its  boldness  in  investigation, 
its  insight,  its  forward  look.  Hence  his  influence  is  larger 
and  more  potent  than  that  of  mere  literary  genius.  The 
spirit  of  the  age  possessed  and  wrought  in  him,  and  to  the 
progress  of  thought  he  gave  a  strong  and  lasting  impulse. 

He  had  a  mind  large,  complete,  and  harmonious,  self- 
contained,  and  active  and  persistent  in  working  out  the 
problems  of  human  life  and  destiny.  His  life-work  was 
the  translation  of  human  thought  into  the  highest  ideal. 
This  high  aim  gave  a  unity  and  grandeur  to  his  life  and 
to  his  work.  Withal,  he  was  an  artist,  with  an  eye  al- 
ways to  the  highest  beauty  of  form  and  of  thought. 


298      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Duntzer's  Life  of,  trans. 

Grimm's  Life  and  Times  of,  trans.,  esp.  Lect.  i,  Introd. 

Hayward's  Goethe  (For.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

Lewes's  Life  of  (Lond.,  1864),  esp.  Bk.  2,  Chap.  2  (Compares 
him  with  Shakespeare  on  p.  54). 

Alcott's  Concord  Days,  p.  157. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  8.  65. 

Arnold's  Mixed  Essays,  p.  274. 

Bancroft's  Lit.  and  Historical  Miscellanies,  p.  188. 

Boyesen's  Essays  on  Ger.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1892). 

Blackie's  Wisdom  of  Goethe  :  Estimate  of  his  Character. 

O.  Browning's  Goethe:  his  Life  and  Writings  (N.  Y.). 

Bryant's  Prose  Writings  (N.  Y.,  1884),  2.  335. 

Carlyle's  Essays,  1.  152,  204,  453;  3.  145,  156. 

De  Quincey's  Biographical  Essays,  p.  227.  Same,  Encyc.  Brit., 
8th  ed.,  10.  693. 

Emerson's  Representative  Men:  Prose  Works,  2.  139. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  10.  537. 

Margaret  Fuller's  Life  Without  and  Within,  p.  23. 

Hedge  :  I.  Prose  Writers  of  Germany  (Philad.,  1870),  p.  263. 
2.  Hours  with  German  Classics  (Bost.,  1886),  Chap.  15. 

Helmholtz's  Pop.  Sci.  Lectures  (N.  Y.,  1881),  p.  33  (On  Goethe's 
Scientific  Researches). 

Hutton's  Essays  in  Lit.  Criticism,  p.  I.  Same,  Nat.  R.,  2.  241. 
Same,  Liv.  Age,  50.  I. 

Masson's  Three  Devils,  and  Other  Essays,  p.  99  (Compared 
with  Shakespeare).  Same,  For.  Q.,  16.  532-543-  Same, 
Liv.  Age.  36.  612-615. 

Menzol's  Ger.  Lit.,  Am.  trans.  (Bost.,  1840),  3.  3  (Adverse). 

Scherers  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1886),  2.  145. 

B.  Taylor's  Studies  in  Ger.  Lit.,  Chap.  10,  n.  ("  Homer  is 
specially  epic,  Shakespeare  specially  dramatic,  and  in 
Goethe  we  find  the  highest  equal  development  of  all  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind."  p.  32S-  —  "Shakespeare  is 
universal  in  his  apprehension  of  human  nature-  Goethe  is 
universal  in  his  range  of  intellectual  capacity  and  in  his  cul- 
ture. One  is  greater,  the  other  is  riper."  p.  329)- 

And.  R.,  12.  36. 

Blackw.,  112.  675.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  172.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
116.3. 

Chr.  Exam.,  8.  187. 

Chr.  R.,  21.  412. 

Contemp.,  46.  161,  488,  653  (Seeley).  Same,  Liv.  Age,  162. 
771 ;  163.  339,  726.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  103.  433,  779- 


LITER  A  TURE.  2  99 

Contemp.,  49.  742  (Muller).    Same,  Liv.  Age,  170.  259.    Same, 

Eel.  M.,  107.  207. 
Contemp.,  50.  788  (Caird).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  108.  145.   ("  The 

most  modern  of  the  moderns.") 
Ed.  R.,  26.  304;    92.   188  (Am.  ed.,  p.  98).     Same,  Eel.  M., 

21.  98.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  26.  365. 

Ed.  R.,  106.  194  (Am.  ed.,  p.  101).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  54.  769. 
Fraser,  36.  481  (Goethe  and  his  Critics). 
Lit.  and  Theol.  R.,  2.  282. 
Nat.  Q.,  5.  227. 
No.  Am.,  19.  303. 
New  Eng.,  42.  141. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  17.  406  (Goethe  and  the  Artistic  Study  of  Nature). 
Westm.,  58.  479  (Am.  ed.,  p.  258),  (Goethe  as  a  man  of  Science). 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  27.  460. 


HAMLET'S  MADNESS. 

173.    Was  the  apparent  madness  of  Hamlet  altogether 
feigned  ? 

The  character  of  Hamlet  forms  an  interesting  subject  of 
study,  being  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  all  literature.  Of 
his  character  and  career,  his  madness  is  but  an  incident ;  yet 
it  is  one  not  easily  resolved,  and  about  which  there  is  room 
for  difference  of  opinion.  The  weakness  of  his  character  is 
in  his  indecision,  its  strength  in  his  thought.  But  his  strength 
is  the  source  of  his  weakness ;  his  thought  the  cause  of  his 
indecision. 

Now  what  relation  has  his  madness  to  his  character,  con- 
sidered in  this  general  view?  Was  his  mind  one  which 
might  become  at  least  partially  disordered  by  the  scenes 
through  which  he  passed?  Did  he  exhibit  symptoms  of 
a  mind  really  disordered  ?  Did  the  preponderance  of  his 
thought  give  him  self-command,  so  that  he  would  not  lose 
himself?  or  did  it  overweight  him,  so  as  to  bring  his  mind 
into  actual  disorder?  Did  the  weakness  of  his  will  lead 
him  not  only  to  indecision,  but  to  a  real  weakness  of 
mind  by  which  he  might  lose  control  of  his  faculties  ? 


30O      REFERENCES  fOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

On  the  other  hand,  what  motives  might  lead  him  to  feign 
a  madness  which  would  seem  real?  Might  caution  lead 
him  to  do  this  that  he  might  not  be  thwarted  in  his  attempt 
to  unveil  the  crime  of  his  father's  murder?  Did  the  king 
credit  his  madness  as  a  fact  ?  or  did  he  suspect  that  it  was 
feigned  ? 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  2031  (Gives  extracts  from  au- 
thorities). 

Conin^torTs  Lect.  on  Hamlet,  Mis.  Works,  V.  I. 
Dowden's  Shakespeare  :  His  Mind  and  Art  (Lond.),  pp.  144- 

147. 

Gervinus's  Shakespeare  Commentaries,  trans.,  p.  550. 
Hudson:  i.  Works  of  Shakespeare,  Hudson's  ed.  (Bost.,  1852), 

10.  185-186. 
2.  Shakespeare :  his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters  (Bost., 

1872),  2.  248-257. 
Hugo's  William  Shakespeare,  trans.  (Chicago,  1887),  pp.  234- 

235- 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  1st  S.,  pp.  219-222.     Same,  No. 

Am  ,  106.  666-668. 
Maudsley's  Body  and  Mind,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1874),  pp.  142-149. 

Same,  Westm.,  83.  79-84.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  64.  464-468. 
Snyder's  System  of  Shakespeare's  Dramas,  1.  207-213.     Same, 

in  substance,  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  7.  (Jan.)  72-75. 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1.  336-340. 
White's  Studies  in  Shakespeare,  p.  93. 
Allan.,  49.  388. 

Blackw.,  2.  509  :  37.  244 ;  46.  449. 
Quar.,  49.  181,  184-187. 


THE  BACON-SHAKESPEARE   QUESTION. 

1 74.    Is  it  probable  that  Lord  Bacon  is  the  real  author  of 
the  plays  attributed  to  Shakespeare  ? 

His  dramas  have  made  Shakespeare,  of  all  names,  one 
of  the  most  renowned.  Hence,  to  raise  the  question  of  the 
authorship  of  the  dramas  is  to  put  in  doubt  his  competency, 
by  genius  and  learning,  to  produce  them.  The  seeming  dis- 
parity of  the  little  that  is  known  of  his  life  with  the  great- 


LITER  A  TURE.  30 1 

ness  of  his  assumed  genius  seems  to  give  occasion  for  such 
doubt,  notwithstanding  the  contemporary  evidence  in  his 
favor. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  Bacon  as  the  author  are  his 
competency  in  both  genius  and  learning ;  numerous  paral- 
lelisms of  word  and  thought  in  passages  of  his  writings  and 
passages  of  the  plays  ;  and  the  alleged  discovery  of  a  cipher 
of  Bacon  in  the  plays,  which,  it  is  contended,  demonstrates 
his  authorship  as  a  fact. 

It  is  a  question  of  fact ;  and,  considered  as  such,  the  claim 
of  Shakespeare  to  the  authorship  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
seriously  impaired. 

Wyman's  Bibliography  of  the  Bacon-Shakespeare  Controversy 
(Saml.  C.  Cox  &  Co.,  Cin.),  119  pp.  (Gives  references  to 
all  that  has  been  published  on  the  subject  on  both  sides,  to 
the  date  of  publication). 

Miss   Delia  Bacon:    i.  Philos.   of  the    Plays  of  Shakespeare 

(Bost.,  1857). 
2.   Putnam,  7.  i. 

Corson's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Shakespeare  (Bost.,  1889),  pp. 
25-31- 

Donnelly's  Great  Cryptogram  (Chicago,  1888). 

Holmes's  Authorship  of  Shakespeare,  new  ed.,  rev.  (Bost.,  1886), 
2  vols. 

Morgan,  The  Shakesperean  Myth  (Cin.,  1881). 

Mrs.  Pott's  Promus  of  Formularies  and  Elegancies  (Lond., 
1883). 

W.  H.  Smith's  Bacon  and  Shakespeare. 

Halliwell-Phillips's  Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Shakespeare  (Cited 
as  giving  an  authentic  account  of  what  is  known  of  Shake- 
speare's Life). 

White  :  i.  Life  and  Genius  of  Shakespeare. 

2.  Studies  in  Shakespeare,  p.  151.     Same,  Allan.,  51. 
507. 

And.  R.,  9.  479. 

Appleton,  21.  1 12,  336,  481  ;  23.  481  ;  24.  14. 

Atlan.,  11.  50  (Recollections  of  Miss  Bacon,  by  N.  Hawthorne). 

Blackw.,  80.  616;  143.  256. 

Critic,  8.  321  (Who  wrote  Dickens?);  11.  211  (Lathrop). 

Eel.  M.,  104.  70. 

Fraser,  90.  164  (Rev.  of  Holmes).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  123.  131. 


302      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Forum,  4.  214  (Rev.  of  Donnelly :  R.  A.  Proctor). 

Harper,  34.  263. 

Lit  W.  (Bost.),  18.  317,  320,  346. 

Liv.  Age,  51.  481  (W.  H.  Smith's  Letter  to  Lord  Ellesmere). 

Nation,  2.  402  ;  46.  136  ;  47.  135. 

Nat.  R.,  5.  72  (Rev.  of  Miss  Bacon). 

New  Eng.,  42.  365  (Rev.  of  Mrs.  Potts). 

iQth  Cent.,  23.  127  (Dethroning  Tennyson  :  Swinburne). 

No.  Am.,  85.  493-499  (Rev.  of  Miss  Bacon)  ;  104.  276  (Rev. 
of  Holmes);  132.  163  (Did  Shakespeare  write  Bacon's 
Works?  J.  F.  Clarke);  144.  572  ;  145.  57  (The  Shake- 
speare Myth :  Donnelly);  145.  422  (Bacon's  Claim  and 
Shakespeare's  " Aye ":  Black);  145.  555,  602;  151.  732 
(Donnelly) ;  152.  47  (Rolfe :  Reply  to  Donnelly). 

Westm.,  131.  522  (R.  Lee). 


.  GOETHE   AND   SCHILLER. 
175.    Was  Goethe  a  greater  poet  than  Schiller  1 

As  the  two  great  German  poets  whose  works  have  taken 
their  place  in  general  literature,  and  as  contemporaries  and 
friends  who  exercised  an  influence  each  upon  the  other, 
Goethe  and  Schiller  are  fitly  contrasted.  Their  unlikeness 
makes  their  comparison  a  contrast. 

Even  if  Goethe  were  the  greater  genius,  does  this  make 
it  certain  that  he  was  the  greater  poet  ?  Yet  was  not  the 
greatness  of  his  genius  exhibited  especially  in  his  poetry  ? 

If  Goethe  was  the  poet  of  culture  and  of  intellect,  Schil- 
ler was  the  poet  of  the  people.  His  poetry,  involved  neither 
in  obscurity  nor  in  mystery,  was  on  a  level  with  the  popular 
apprehension. 

If  Goethe  attained  greater  serenity,  Schiller  had  more  in- 
tensity. If  Goethe  had  a  wider  scope,  Schiller  had  a  greater 
concentration  of  aim.  Thus  there  was  a  balance,  each  pos- 
sessing qualities  which  the  other  lacked.  As  to  which  was 
on  the  whole  superior,  judgments  may  differ. 

They  could  scarce  be  called  rivals,  since  they  worked, 
each  according  to  his  gift,  not  in  antagonism,  but  in  fra- 
ternal harmonv. 


LITERATURE.  303 


GOETHE. 

Poetic  and  Dramatic  Works,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.). 
Grimm's  Life  and  Times  of  Goethe,  Lect.,  21,  22,  25. 
Lewes's  Life  of  Goethe,  Bk.  6,  Chap,  i,  6-8  ;  Bk.  7,  Chap.  7. 
Bancroft's  Lit.  and  Historical  Miscellanies  (N.  Y.,  1855),  p.  188. 
Gostwick  and  Harrison's  Outlines  of  Ger.  Lit.,  Chap.  18-20. 
Hedge's  Hours  with  Ger.  Classics,  Chap.  15. 
Menzel's  Ger.  Lit.,  trans.  (Bost.,  1840),  3.  3. 
Scherer's  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1886),  2.  145. 
Madame  de  Stael's  Germany,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1860),  V.  I,  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  7,  13,  pp.  227-233,  Chap.  21-23. 
B.  Taylor's  Studies  in  Ger.  Lit.,  Chap.  10,  n. 
Blackw.,  56.  54,  417  (Poems  and  Ballads  of). 
Blackw.,  112.  675.    Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  172.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

116.  3. 

Brit.  Q.,  78.  419  (Am.  ed.,  p.  227).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  102.  1 19. 
Contemp.,  46.  161,  488,  653.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  162.  771  ;  163. 

339,  726.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  103.  433,  779. 
Fraser,  59.  710.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  49.  53  (Poems  and  Ballads). 
For  other  references  on  Goethe,  see  page  298. 

SCHILLER. 

Poetic  and  Dramatic  Works,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.). 

Poems  and  Ballads,  trans.,  with  Life  by  E.  B.  Lytton.  Chandos 
Classics  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1887). 

Carlyle's  Life  of  Schiller. 

Duntzer's  Life  of,  trans.  (Lond.,  1883). 

Sime's  Schiller  (For.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  671. 

Bancroft's  Lit.  and  Historical  Miscellanies,  pp.  180-188. 

Carlyle's  Essays,  2.  245. 

De  Quincey's  Biographical  Essays,  p.  263.  Same,  Encyc.  Brit, 
8th  ed.,  19.  716  ("  The  representative  of  the  German  in- 
tellect in  the  highest  form."  —  "  Wallenstein,  an  immortal 
drama,  and,  beyond  competition,  the  nearest  in  point  of  ex- 
cellence to  the  dramas  of  Shakespeare.") 

Encyc.  Brit,  Qth  ed.,  21.  395. 

Gostwick  and  Harrison's  Outlines  of  Ger.  Lit.,  Chap.  21-22. 

Hedge  :  I.  Prose  Writers  of  Germany  (Philad.,  1870),  p.  365. 

("  Schiller  is  the  poet  of  the  people.") 
2.  Hours  with  Ger.  Classics,  Chap.  16. 

Menzel's  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  trans.  (Bost,  1840;,  3.  141-159- 


304      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Miiller's   Chips  from  a  Ger.   Workshop,  3.  74.     ('In  thought, 

feeling,  and  language  the  most   truly  German  of  all  the 

poets  of  Germany.") 
Scherer's  Hist,  of  Ger.  Lit.,  2.  199. 
Madame  de  StaeTs  Germany,  trans.  (X.  Y.,  1860),  V.  i,  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  8,  17-20.    ("'  Schiller  was  a  man  of  uncommon  genius 

and  of  perfect  sincerity.") 
B.  Taylor's  Studies  in  Ger.  Lit.,  Chap.  9.     (u  Few  poets  have 

ever  excited  more  enthusiasm,  sympathy,  and  love  in  the 

human  race  than  Friedrich  Schiller.") 
Blackw.,  69.  651   ("Like  Shakespeare,  Schiller  was  a  lyric  poet 

of  the  very  highest  order").    114.  183.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

118.  707.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  81.  513. 
Chr.  Exam.,  16.  365  ;  22.  235 ;  25.  385. 
Ed.  R.,  53.  82  (Schiller  and  Goethe). 
For.  Q.,  30.  281.     ("His  appearance  was  one  of  the  greatest 

phenomena  which  the  modern  world  has  seen.") 
Meth.  Q.,  24.  242. 
Nat.  Q.,  6.  207. 
No.  Am.,  16.  397 ;  17.  268  ;  39.  i. 


MEPHISTOPHELES   AND   SATAN. 

176.    Is  Goethe's  Mephistopheles  a  better  conception  of  the 
Prince  of  Darkness  than  Milton's  Satan  ? 

Milton's  Satan  is  the  great  rebellious  archangel,  the  chief 
of  the  rebel  hosts,  who  chooses  evil  for  his  good,  and  is 
the  irreconcilable  foe  of  God.  His  purpose  and  aim  are, 
in  opposition  to  God,  to  destroy  good  and  promote  evil. 
To  this  he  gives  himself ;  for  this  he  uses  his  great  powers. 
For,  though  fallen  far,  he  is  still  great.  He  feels  his  great- 
ness in  himself;  and  he  so  manifests  it,  in  unconquerable 
resolution  and  untiring  effort,  that,  spite  of  his  bad  cause, 
he  almost  excites  admiration. 

The  character  of  Mephistopheles  is  quite  different.  With- 
out grandeur,  or  even  dignity,  he  is  the  perfection  of  mean- 
ness, an  object  for  contempt  and  loathing.  This  impression 
is  made,  not  by  his  outward  appearance,  but  by  an  inner 
view  of  his  character.  As  his  character  comes  to  be  under- 


LITERATURE.  305 

s.tood,  he  is  seen  to  be  utterly  and  intensely  bad.     There  is 
in  him  nothing  to  excite  admiration,  or  even  sympathy. 

Attention  is  drawn  to  Satan  rather  in  what  he  says  and 
does>  but  to  Mephistopheles  in  what  he  is. 

MEPHISTOPHELES. 

Bancroft's  Lit.  and  Historical   Miscellanies,  p.  198.    ("A  very 

devil,  hideous  and  mean.") 
Carlyle's  Essays,  1.  163-164. 
Conway's   Demonology  and  Devil  Lore  (N.  Y.),  V-  2,  Chap. 

25,  esp.  pp.  347-352.     See  Index. 
Gostwick  and  Harrison's  Outlines  of  Ger.  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  284- 

285. 
Grimm's  Life  and  Times  of  Goethe.     Am.  trans.  (Bost.,  1880), 

PP-  507-512. 

Hedge's  Hours  with  Ger.  Classics,  p.  300. 
Masson's  Three  Devils,  and  Other  Essays,  pp.  32-47.     Same, 

Fraser,  30.  657-662.    ("  Mephistopheles  is  the  spirit  of  evil 

in  modern  society."  —  "  A  devil  to  the  very  core.") 
Menzel's  Ger.  Lit,  trans,  by  Felton  (Bost,  1840),  3.  17-19. 
Madame  de  StaeTs  Germany,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1860),  1.  362-363. 

("A  civilized  devil.") 
B.  Taylor's  Studies  in  Ger.  Lit,  pp.  356-360.    ("  Mephistopheles 

is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  creations  in  literature.") 
Blackw.,  112.  691-692.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  184-185.     Same, 

Liv.  Age,  116.  15.     ("The  character  of  Mephistopheles  is 

perhaps  the  most  wonderful  creation  in  all  fiction."  —  "A 

true  devil,  without  one  mitigating  feature,  one  compunction, 

one  feeling,  good  or  bad.") 
Cornh.,  14.  687,  The  Devil  and  Dr.  Faustus  (Gives  the  legend, 

which  may  be  compared  with  Goethe's  representation). 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  16.  320. 

SATAN. 

Addison's  Spectator,  Nos.  273,  309,  321,  357. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1307,  1309. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  133-134. 

Channing's  Works,  1.  15-17. 

Chateaubriand's  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit.,  trans.  (Lend.,  1837), 
2.  142-143.  ("Satan  is  acknowledged  to  be  an  incompara- 
ble creation."  —  "  '  Satan  is  not  the  hero  of  his  poem,  but  the 
masterpiece  of  his  poetry.'  Quoted  from  Luis  Racine.") 

CO 


306      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Con  way's  Demonology  and  Devil  Lore  (N.  Y.),  2.  126. 
Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  3.  377-378. 
Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harpers  ed.),  2.  373. 
Hudson's  Shakespeare:  his  Lite,  Art,  and  Characters,  1.  252- 

253- 
Macaulay's  Essays,  art.    Milton,  1.  228-229.     Same,  Ed.   R., 

42.  321-322. 
Masson's  Three  Devils,  and  Other  Essays,  pp.   3-32,  46-47. 

Same,  Fraser,  30.  648-657,  662. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  I.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  6,  pp.  449-453. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  1.  480-485. 
Contemp.,  22.  353-355- 
Nat.  R.,  9.  179-182. 
No.  Am.,  8.  344. 
No.  Brit.,  16.  332-333  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  175-176). 


DRYDEN   AND   POPE. 
177.    Was  Dryden  a  greater  poet  than  Pope? 

Dryden  and  Pope  are  the  two  chief  representatives  of  a 
school  of  English  poetry,  one  as  its  founder,  the  other  as 
its  perfecter,  which  makes  prominent  the  form  or  style. 
Of  the  two,  Dryden  has  the  larger  range,  but  Pope  is  the 
more  painstaking  and  correct.  Dryden  had  a  fertile  mind, 
and,  for  the  best  execution,  wrote  too  much ;  while  Pope 
gave  the  utmost  care  to  the  perfection  of  form. 

Both  were  satirists,  and  both  were  also  didactic.  Each 
was  affected  by,  and  reflected,  his  age.  Neither  attained 
the  first  rank  among  poets,  yet  in  their  rank  both  stand 
high.  Pope  studied  Dryden,  and  followed  him  as  master ; 
yet  he  stands  for  himself,  on  the  merits  of  his  own  genius 
and  on  the  excellence  of  his  own  performance.  If  Dryden 
had  greater  original  genius,  Pope  cultivated  his  genius  with 
more  assiduity,  and  in  some  important  respects  improved 
on  his  master. 

DRYDEN. 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  Life  and  Works  of. 

Poetical  Works  of.  with  Life  by  Mitford.     British  Poets  (Bost). 

Works  (Harper's  ed  ).  with  Life  by  Mitford. 


LITER  A  TURE.  307 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  522. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng   Lit.,  pp.  149-154. 

Mrs.  Browning's  Life,  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  V.  2, 

The  Book  of  the  Poets,  p.  78. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Fourth  Period,  Poets,  Dramatists. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  115. 
Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  8.  202 ;  Qth  ed.,  7.  488. 
Gosse's  Hist,  of  i8th  Cent.  Lit.  (Lond.  and  N.Y.,  1889).     See 

Index. 

Hallam's  Lit.  of  Europe.     See  Index. 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets.    ("  His  compositions  are  the  effect 

of  a  vigorous  genius  operating  on  large  materials.") 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,   ist  S.,  p.    i.       Same,  No.  Am., 

107.  1 86. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  1.  321.    Same,  Ed.  R.,  47.  i.    (  "  The  public 

voice  has  assigned  to  Dryden  the  first  place  in  the  second 

rank  of  our  poets.") 
Masson's  Three  Devils,  and  Other  Essays,  p.  153.    Same,  Brit. 

Q.,  20.  i.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  32.  537. 
Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.     See  Index. 
Morley  and  Tyler's  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  p.  430. 
Nicoll's  Landmarks  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  134-145. 
Perry's  Eng.  Lit.  in  the  i8th  Cent.     See  Index. 
Maude  G.    Phillips's  Pop.  Man.  of   Eng.   Lit.  (N.Y.,  i8fo), 

1.  389- 
Saintsbury's  Dryden  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.)    ("  The  greatest 

craftsman  in  English  letters."  —  "  His  range  is  enormous.") 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  2. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  2.  437. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  54. 
Black w.,  57.  133,  369,  503. 
Ed.  R.,  13.  116  ;102.  i. 
Nation,  32.  337  (Saintsbury's  Dryden). 

Ouar.,  146.  289  (Am.  ed.,  p.  155).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  139.  579. 
Westm.,  63.  336  (Am.  ed.,  p.  176).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  45.  432. 

POPE. 

Poetical  Works,  with  Life  by  Dyce.     Brit.  Poets  (Bost.). 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1024. 
Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  157-160. 
Birrell's  Obiter  Dicta,  2d  S.,  Chap.  2. 

Mrs.  Browning's  Life,  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  V.  2, 
The  Book  of  the  Poets,  pp.  87-92. 


308     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Fifth  Period,  Poets. 
Conington's  Mis.  Writings,  1.  I. 

Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  240  (Compared  with  Dryden). 
De  Quincey  :  i.  Biographical  Essays,  p.  101.     Same,  Encyc. 
Brit,  8th  ed.,  18.  320. 

2.  Essays  on  the  Poets,  p.  147.    Same,  No.  Brit., 

9.  299. 

3.  Theol.  Essays,  2.  251. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  19.  481. 

Gosse's  Hist,  of  i8th  Cent.  Lit.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1889).     See 

Index. 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets.     ("  Dryden  often  surpasses  ex- 

pectation, and  Pope  never  falls  below  it.     Dryden  is  read 

with  frequent  astonishment,  Pope  with  perpetual  delight.") 
Lowell's  My  Study  Windows,  p.  385.     Same,  No.  Am.,  112. 

178.     ("Pope  fills  a  very  important  place  in  the  history  of 

English  poetry."  —  "In  his  own  province  he  still  stands 

unapproachably  alone/') 

Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.     See  Index. 
Morley  and  Tyler's  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit,  pp.  535-540- 
Nicoll's  Landmarks  of  Eng.  Lit  (N.  Y.),  pp.  185-194, 
Perry's  Eng.  Lit  in  the  i8th  Cent,  Chap.  6. 
Maude  G.  Phillips's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit  (N.Y.,  1885),  1.453. 
Sainte-Beuve's  Eng.  Portraits  (N.Y.,  1875),  P-  277 
Stephen  :  i.  Hours  in  a  Library  (N.  Y.,  1875),  PP-  9°»  '75- 

2.  Pope  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.). 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  7. 
Thackeray's  Eng.  Humorists,  Lect.  4.    ("  One  of  the  greatest 

literary  artists  England  has  seen.") 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  3.  55. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  107. 
Blackw.,  57.  379;  1O4.  259.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  98.  643. 
Brit.  Q.,  55.  413  (Am.  ed.,  p.  219.) 
Cornh.,  28.  583.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  119.  771.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

82.  69.     Same,  Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library,  p.  90. 
Ed.  R.,  160.  295. 
Fortn.,  12.  641. 
Fraser,  81.  642. 
Nation,  31.  66. 
No.  Am..  13.  450. 
Quar.,  32.  271  ;   152.  462  (Am.  ed.,  p.  242). 


. 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


LITER  A  TURK.  309 

WORDSWORTH   AND   COLERIDGE. 
178.    Was  Wordsworth  a  greater  poet  than  Coleridge  ? 

Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  were  not  only  contemporaries, 
but  friends,  and  exercised  an  influence  each  upon  the  other. 
They  were  congenial,  yet  different.  Both  were  idealists,  but 
Coleridge  was  at  the  same  time  the  more  metaphysical  and 
the  more  imaginative.  Wordsworth,  concentrating  his  aim, 
gave  his  life  to  the  production  of  his  poems;  while  the 
poems  of  Coleridge  are  but  the  casual  productions  of  a 
mind  absorbed  in  profound  and  comprehensive  thought. 
With  a  single  and  an  attainable  aim,  Wordsworth's  life-work 
reached  completion ;  while,  with  a  larger  but  a  divided 
aim,  Coleridge's  life-work  was  but  a  fragment,  a  partial 
disclosure  of  his  greatness. 

WORDSWORTH. 

Wordsworth  is  one  of  the  best  representatives  of  the 
school  of  poets  that  makes  prominent  the  substance  or 
thought.  Hence  his  poetry  is  replete  with  thought,  so  that 
he  may  be  called  a  philosophic  poet,  or  a  poetic  philoso- 
pher. He  may  also  be  called  a  spiritual  poet,  since  he 
gives  the  spiritual  view  of  things.  In  like  manner,  he  is 
ideal  or  transcendental. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  his  avowed  aim  to  make  the 
common  and  the  low  the  subject  of  his  verse,  that  he  may 
transform  and  glorify  it  by  showing  its  ideal  significance. 
Simple,  serene,  contemplative,  nature  and  man  were,  in  his 
mind,  translated  into  the  spirit  and  language  of  pure  and 
elevated  poetry.  The  spirit  became  transparent  in  the 
form ;  the  form  was  the  fit  expression  of  the  spirit.  Hence 
Wordsworth's  poetry  is  addressed  to  and  awakens  the  spir- 
itual in  man,  and  for  its  due  appreciation  requires  a  spirit- 
ual apprehension.  The  production  of  his  poems  was  the 
work  of  his  life.  In.  them  he  distilled  and  left  to  the  future 
all  that  was  best  of  his  own  thought  and  inner  experience. 


310      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Poetical  Works,  ed.  by  Wm.  Knight  (Edin.,  1872),  8  vols. 

Poetical  Works,  Brit.  Poets  (Bost.),  7  vols. 

Poems  of,  chosen  and  edited  by  M.  Arnold.     Preface  to  the 

same,  Arnold's  Essays    in  Crit.,  2d   S.,  p.   122.      Same, 

Macmil.,  40.   193.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  142.  323. 
Memoirs  of,  by  Christopher  Wordsworth,  2  vols. 
Myers's  Wordsworth  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.). 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  3.  2843. 
Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  Seventh  Period,  Poets. 
Channing's  Works  (Bost.,  1873),  6-  1SS~1S^- 
Coleridge's  Biographia  Literaria  (Complete  Works,  Harper's 

ed.,  V.  3),  Chap.  4,  14,  17,  22. 
De  Quincey:  i.  Essays  on  the  Poets,  p.  5. 

2.   Lit.  Reminiscences,  V.  i,  Chap.  10-12;  V.  2, 

Chap.  13,  14,  21. 
B.  B.  Edwards's  Writings,  2.  183.     Same,  Am.  Bib.  Repos., 

7.  187. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  929;  9th  ed.,  24.  668. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3. 118-120.     Same, 

No.  Brit.,  48.  156-158. 

Hazlitt's  Mis.  Works  (Philad.,  1876),  V.  4,  Pt.  2,  p.  214. 
Mutton's  Essays  in  Lit.  Crit.,  p.  180. 
Lowell's  Among  My  Books,  2d  S.,  p.  201. 
MacDonald's  Imagination,  and  Other  Essays  (Bost.),  p.  245. 
Masson's  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  etc.,  p.  i.     Same,  No.  Brit., 

13.  473  (Am.  ed.,  p.  255). 

Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit,  pp.  878-882,  896-898. 
Mrs.  Oliphant's  Lit.  Hist,  of  Eng.     See  Index. 
Pater's  Appreciations,  p.  37. 
Reed's  Brit.  Poets,  V.  2,  Lect.  15. 
Shairp:  i.  Aspects  of  Poetry,  Chap.  II,  12. 

2.  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature,  Chap.  14. 

3.  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philos.,p.  i.   Same,  No.  Brit., 

41.  i. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  260-265. 
Talfourd's  Crit.  and  Mis.  Writings. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  4.  i . 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  330. 
Whipple:   i.  Lit.  and  Life,  p.  253. 

2.  Essays  and  Reviews,  1.  222.     Same,  No.  Am., 

59.  352. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  2.  643  :    3.  69. 
Allan.,  45.  241  (Cranch). 

Blackw.,  37.  699;    49.  359.     110.  299.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  111 
131.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  560. 


LITER  A  TURE.  3 1 1 

Chr.  Exam.,  51.  275. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  8.  127. 

Chr.  R.,  16.  434. 

Cornh.,  34.  206.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  130.  615.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

87.  447. 

Ed.  R.,  11.  214;  169.415. 
Fraser,  3.  557;    6.  607;   44.  101,  186;   101.  205.     Same,  Liv. 

Age,  145.  88. 

Fortn.,  21.  455.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  121.  323. 
Macmil.,  28.  229.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  81.  469. 
Meth.  Q.,  17.  362. 
Nation,  32.  153. 
Nat.   R.,  19.  27.     Same,   Liv.  Age,  84.   3.     Same,  Eel.   M., 

64.  273,  415. 
New  Eng.,  9.  583. 
New  York  R.,  4.  I. 

No.  Am.,  18.  356 ;  73.  473 ;  100.  508. 
Quar.,  52.  317.    92.  182  (Am.  ed.,  p.  96).     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

36.  408.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  28.  441. 

COLERIDGE. 

Coleridge  was  most  of  all  a  thinker,  and  as  such  a  phi- 
losopher and  a  theologian  ;  yet  he  was  as  distinctly  a  poet. 
He  was  more  a  thinker,  because  he  gave  his  mind  and  his 
life  more  to  thought ;  but  his  productions  in  poetry,  though 
meagre  in  quantity,  show  him  to  be  a  natural  and  genuine 
poet  of  high  excellence. 

His  mind  was  highly  ideal ;  hence  both  his  philosophy 
and  his  poetry  are  of  a  like  character.  Yet  his  poetry  was 
characterized  even  more  by  imagination  than  by  thought. 
Hence  it  is  not  another  form  of  his  philosophy,  but  a 
distinct  and  different  production,  showing  other  powers  of 
mind. 

His  poetry  is  characterized  by  the  beauty  and  purity  of 
its  spirit  and  the  perfection  of  its  form.  Spirit  and  form 
are  united  in  harmonious  proportion,  blending  together, 
and  imparting  a  high  and  refined  pleasure.  The  spirit 
animates  the  form ;  the  form  is  the  full  and  clear  expres- 
sion of  the  spirit,  without  restraining  its  freedom.  It  is 
plainly  of  an  inspiration  which  not  only  gives  the  spirit,  but 
with  it  an  adequate  and  perfect  form. 


312       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Poetical  Works  (Brit.  Poets,  Bost,  1854),  with  Memoir. 

Trails  Coleridge  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  3. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  405. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.   5.  51. 

Bayne's  Essays  in  Biog.  and  CriL  (Bost.,  1858),  2.  139-145. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit,  7th  Period,  Poets. 

Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  478.  (*•  Coleridge's  poetry  is  re- 
markable for  the  perfection  of  its  execution,  for  the  exqui- 
site art  with  which  its  divine  spirit  is  endowed  with  formal 
expression."  —  "It  was  probably  only  quantity  that  was 
wanting  to  make  Coleridge  the  greatest  poet  of  his  age.") 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  7.  111-112;  9th  ed.,  6.  137. 

Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  878-880. 

Mrs.  Oliphant's  Lit.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1.  243-254,  276-283. 

Pater's  Appreciations,  p.  64. 

Reed's  Lectures  on  the  Brit.  Poets,  V.  2,  Lect.  12. 

Shairp's  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philos.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  144-150. 

Swinburne's  Essays  and  Studies,  p.  259.  ("  But  as  a  poet  his 
place  is  indisputable.  It  is  high  among  the  highest  of  all 
time.") 

Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  4.  102. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  277-280. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  4.  80. 

Allan.,  45.  483. 

Blackw.,  6.  3:  36.  542;  110.  552.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  78.  138. 
Same,  Liv.  Age,  111.  643.  ("  His  is  pure  poetry,  as  his 
nature  is  all  spirit."  —  "No  English  minstrel  has  ever 
merited  a  higher  or  more  perfect  place  among  the  thrones 
of  our  poetic  heaven.") 

Critic.  6.  249.  ("It  is  enough  for  us  here  that  he  has  written 
some  of  the  most  poetical  poetry  in  the  language,  and  one 
poem,  *  The  Ancient  Mariner,'  not  only  unparalleled,  but 
unapproached  in  its  kind,  and  that  kind  of  the  rarest."  — 
Lowell.) 

No.  Am.,  39.  437. 

Quar.,  11.  177;  52.  i  ;  125.  78.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  98.  515. 

Westm.,  12.  i. 


BYRON   AND   SHELLEY. 
1 79.    Was  Byron  a  greater  poet  than  Shelley  ? 

Byron  and  Shelley  were,  on  the  whole,  more  unlike  than 
alike.     As  revolutionary  in  spirit  and  spurned  by  society, 


LITER  A  TURK.  3 1 3 

they  were  alike ;  but  they  were  unlike  in  the  tone  of  their 
mind  and  in  their  poetic  genius. 

Shelley  was  more  sincere,  Byron  more  cynical ;  Shelley 
had  more  real  faith,  Byron  was  more  sceptical ;  Shelley 
had  more  love,  Byron  more  passion.  As  poet,  Shelley  is 
more  ideal  and  mystical,  Byron  more  clear  and  forcible. 
Each  had  an  inspiration  corresponding  to -his  own  genius. 
The  inspiration  of  the  one  was  more  inward  and  intense, 
that  of  the  other  more  outward  and  overpowering. 

BYRON. 

Byron,  considered  in  respect  to  his  genius,  character,  and 
career,  was  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  of  his  time. 

His  poetry  is  strongly  subjective.  He  writes  himself,  his 
feelings  and  experiences,  as  well  as  his  thoughts.  His 
poetry  is,  then,  intimately  associated  with  his  life,  inner 
and  outer. 

More  than  most  men,  he  had  in  his  nature  the  elements 
of  good  and  of  evil,  which  made  discord  in  his  own  soul 
and  arrayed  him  against  society.  The  passion  which  made 
his  inner  and  outer  life  tumultuous  gave  vigor  and  strength 
and  a  free  and  rushing  movement  to  his  verse ;  but  it  also 
imparted  to  it  a  spirit  of  independence,  reaching  even  to 
revolt.  Hence  he  was  the  poet  of  the  revolution,  repre- 
senting the  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  established  order. 
Even  the  restraints  of  morality  he  cast  off,  and  his  poetry  is 
pervaded  with  the  taint  of  the  immoral.  Notwithstanding, 
it  has  qualities  of  beauty  and  of  power  which  give  it  high 
rank,  and  great  popularity  and  influence. 

Complete  Poetical  Works. 

Poetry  of,  chosen  and  arranged  by  M.  Arnold  (1881). 

Selection  from  Works,  ed.  by  Swinburne. 

Alder's  Genius  of  Solitude,  p.  289. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  319. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  512. 

M.  Arnold's  Essays  in  Crit.,  2d  S.,  Chap.  6.      Same,  Pref.  to 

Poetry  of  Byron  chosen  by  Arnold.     Same,  Macmil.,  43. 

367.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  149.  131. 


314      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  102. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  249-253. 

Castelar's  Life  of  Byron,  and  Other  Sketches,  trans.  (N.  Y.). 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  ;th  Period,  Poets. 

Chateaubriand's  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit.,  trans.,  2.  341. 

Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.),  2.  518. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  6.  41-42  ;  gth  ed.,4.  610-612.  ("  He  is  the 
greatest  modern  preacher  of  •  liberty,  equality,  and  frater- 
nity.'" "He  stands  at  the  opening  of  a  new  era  as  its 
largest  literary  figure."  —  Minto.) 

Giles's  Lectures  and  Essays,  i.  95,  136. 

Gilfillan's  Mod.  Lit.  and  Literary  Men  (N.Y.,  1860),  p.  42. 

Goethe's  Conversations  with  Eckermann,  trans.,  Feb.  24,  1825. 
Same,  Blackie's  Wisdom  of  Goethe,  pp.  122-125. 

Hazlitt's  Mis.  Works  (Philad.,  1876),  5.  95. 

Jeffrey's  Contributions  to  the  Ed.  R.  Mod.  Brit.  Essayists 
(Philad.),  p.  434.  Same,  Ed.  R.,  27.  277. 

Macaulay's  Essays,  2.  324.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  53.  544. 

Moore's  Life  of  Byron  (Philad.,  1869),  esp.  2.  520-536. 

Nichol's  Byron  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  1 1 . 

Mrs.  Oliphant's  Lit.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  2,  Chap.  3,  4. 

Maude  G.   Phillips's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.   Lit.  (N.  Y.,   1885), 

2    33'- 

Reed's  Brit.  Poets,  2.  163. 

Swinburne's  Essays  and  Studies,  2d  ed.,  p.  238.  Same,  Pref. 
to  Swinburne's  ed.  of  Byron's  Works. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  2. 

Ward's  Eng.  Poets  (Student's  ed.),  4.  244.  ("  He  is  the  only 
British  poet  of  the  nineteenth  century  who  is  also  Eu- 
ropean.") 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  339. 

Whipple's  Essays  and  Reviews,  1.  267.   Same,  No.  Am.,  60.  64. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  1.  206-214. 

Am.  Q.  Obs.,  2.  291. 

Blackw.,  5.  429,  512  ;  10.  107;  11.  212;  14.  282;  16.  530,  711  ; 
17.  131.  112.  49.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  79.  385.  Same,  Liv. 
Age,  114.  387. 

Contemp.,  40.  179. 

Ed.  R.,  30.  87. 

Fortn.,  14.  650  (Morley). 

Fraser,  1.  129,  356,  484;  2.  347;  7.  303. 

Internat.  R.,  7.  282. 

Nation,  31.  344;  46.  66. 

No.  Am.,  20.  i  ;   21.  300 ;   31.  167. 


LITERATURE.  315 

Quar.,  16.  172  ;  19.  215  (Sir  W.  Scott).  125.  100-106.  Same, 
Liv.  Age,  98.  526-529  ;  131.  354  (Am.  ed.,  p.  189).  Same, 
Eel.  M.,  78.  i. 

Quar.,  154.  53  (Am.  ed.,  p.  28). 

Spirit  of  Pilg.,  1.  393. 

Temple  Bar,  25.  364.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  72.  547. 

Westm.,  12.  269.  69.  350  (Am.  ed.,  p.  198).  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
57.  580. 

SHELLEY. 

Shelley  is  one  of  the  most  ideal  of  poets.  His  mind 
was  ideal  to  a  high  degree,  and  this  characteristic  gives  his 
poems  an  air  of  unreality. 

He  seems,  moreover,  to  have  been  a  born  non-conformist, 
began  his  career  by  attacking  the  faith  and  institutions  of 
society,  and  as  a  natural  consequence  became  a  social  out- 
cast. But  he  lived  in  himself,  in  his  thoughts  and  ideals ; 
hence  his  poetry  is  subjective,  as  the  outflow  of  his  own 
spirit.  It  is  plainly  the  production  of  a  mind  singularly 
pure  and  ethereal. 

He  had  a  spirit  sensitive,  gentle,  generous,  living  apart 
from  men  yet  loving  them,  and  cherishing  visions  of  greater 
social  equality.  His  poetry  is  his  voice,  his  mind,  which 
he  has  left  to  the  world. 

Poetical  Works,  ed.  by  Mrs.  Shelley,  with  Memoir.    Brit.  Poets 

(Bost.,  1855),  3  vols. 
Poetical  Works,  new  ed.,  with  Mrs.  Shelley's  notes,  etc.  (Lond.), 

4  vols. 

Alger's  Genius  of  Solitude,  p.  272. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  2068. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  843. 
M.  Arnold's  Essays  in  Grit,  2d  S.,  Ess.  7.     Same,  I9th  Cent, 

23.  23. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  142. 
Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  7th  Period :  Poets. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  521-527. 
De  Quincey's  Essays  on  the  Poets,  p.  42. 
Dowden's  Life  of  Shelley.     ("  No  other  Doet  has  pursued  with 

such  breathless  speed  on  such  aerial  heights  the  spirit  of 

ideal  beauty.") 


316      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Encyc.  Brit,  21.  789.     ("  Shelley  is  emphatically  the  poet  of  the 

future.") 

Mar.  Fuller's  Life  Without  and  Within,  p.  149. 
Godwin's  Out  of  the  Past,  p.  in. 
Kinsley's  Views  on  Vexed  Questions,  p.  255.    Same,  Penn  Mo., 

7.  444,  513. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  2.  256-257.      ("  His  poetry  seems  not  to 

have  been  an  art,  but  an  inspiration.") 
MacDonald's    Imagination,  and   Other   Essays    (Bost.,  1883), 

p.  264.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  20.  100. 
Masson's  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  Keats,  and  Other  Writers,  p.  105. 
Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  928-930.    ("  The  tumult 

of  the  Revolution  was  in  Byron  ;  its  purest  aspirations  were 

in  Shelley.") 

Mrs.  Oliphaut's  Lit.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  2,  Chap.  4,  5. 
Shairp's  Aspects  of  Poetry  (Bost.),   Chap.  8.     Same,  Fraser, 

100.  38. 

Swinburne's  Essays  and  Studies,  p.  184. 
Symonds's  Shelley  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.). 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  265-269. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  4.  348. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  283-293. 
Allan.,  11.  184. 
Blackw.,  111.  415.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  113.  387.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

79,  17- 
Brit.  Q.,  82.  277.    ("  On  the  whole  Shelley  was  and  is  our  most 

inspired  and  possessed  poet.") 
Critic,  7.  97. 
Dial  (Chicago),  7.  215. 
Ed.  R.,  40.  494  ;  69.  503  (Am.  ed.,  p.  269) ;  90.  419-424  (Am. 

ed.,  pp.  220-223)  ;  133.  426  (Am.  ed.,  p.  218). 
Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  15.  292. 
Nat.  R.,  3.  342. 
No.  Am.,  150.  246. 
New  Eng.,  52.  138. 
No.  Brit,  8.  218  (Am.  ed.,  p.  116).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  16.  49. 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  13.  i. 

No.  Brit.,  53.  30.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  108.  3. 
Quar.,  21.  460;  26.  168. 
Westm.,  69. 97  (Am.  ed.,  p.  53)  J  «*•  75  (Am.  ed.,  p.  34); 


LITER  A  TURE.  3 1 7 

BROWNING  AND   TENNYSON. 
1 80.    Is  Browning  a  greater  poet  than  Tennyson  ? 

Browning  and  Tennyson  have  both  spent  a  long  life  in 
the  sole  exercise  of  their  poetic  gift,  and  their  productions 
show  respectively  its  full  range  and  power.  Both  are  intel- 
lectual, but  Browning  has  the  greater  strength  of  thought. 
If  Browning  is  more  profound,  he  is  likewise  more  obscure, 
while  Tennyson  is  more  apprehensible  and  popular.  If 
Browning  is  more  original,  Tennyson  reflects  the  sentiment 
and  spirit  of  the  age.  In  the  perfection  of  his  art  and  the 
finish  of  his  style,  Tennyson  is  much  the  superior. 

The  characteristics  of  their  genius  differ  widely,  making 
them  distinctly  individual,  and  bringing  them  into  positive 
contrast. 

BROWNING. 

Of  all  poets  Browning  is  one  of  the  most  original,  so  that 
comparison  of  him  with  others  shows  rather  contrast  than 
resemblance.  More  than  most  others  he  stands  alone,  and 
must  be  judged  by  himself. 

His  poetry  is  not  more  marked  by  originality  than  by 
strength.  It  is  not  merely  the  effusion  of  an  overpowering 
inspiration.  The  poet  shows  self-command.  He  is  master 
of  his  thought,  of  his  art.  But  thought  is  supreme  and  art 
secondary.  There  is  more  strength  of  thought  than  beauty 
of  art. 

The  thought  is  represented  in  concrete  characters,  hence 
the  dramatic  form  of  much  of  his  poetry.  In  this  respect 
his  poetry  is  objective,  yet  the  mind  of  the  poet  appears 
in  his  characters.  Though  psychological,  it  is  not  abstract 
or  general,  but  concrete  or  particular. 

Browning  requires  and  repays  much  study.  He  has 
great  merits,  which  excite  in  some  minds  warm  admiration ; 
but  he  has  also  marked  defects,  which  prevent  a  general 
and  full  appreciation.  Yet  the  merits  pertain  to  the  sub- 


3l8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

stance  or  thought,  outweighing  the  defects,  which  pertain 
to  the  form.  The  thought  is  a  grappling  with  the  problems 
of  life  and  of  the  age,  in  faith  and  with  hope. 

Complete  Works  of  Robt.  Browning  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.),  16  vols. 

Selections  from  Works,  2  vols. 

Poetic  and  Dramatic  Works,  Riv.  ed.  (Bost.  and  N.  Y.),  7  vols. 

Selections  from  the  Poetry  of,  with  an  Introd.  by  Richard  G 
White  (N.  Y.,  1883). 

W.  J.  Alexander's  Introd.  to  the  Poetry  of. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  267. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  346. 

Mrs.  Bol ton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  390. 

The  Browning  Society's  Papers  (Lond.). 

Cooke's  Guide-Book  to  Browning. 

Corson's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Robt.  Browning's  Poetry. 

Dowden's  Studies  in  Lit.,  1789-1877  (Lond.,  1889),  pp.  21 1-239. 

Fotheringham's  Studies  in  the  Poetry  of  Robt.  Browning. 

Mar.  Fuller's  Lit  and  Art  (N.  Y.,  1852),  Pt.  2,  p.  31. 

Gosse's  Robt.  Browning  :  Personalia. 

Jos.  Jacobs's  Essays  and  Reviews. 

Jones's  Browning  as  a  Philosopher  and  Religious  Teacher. 

Kingsland's  Robt.  Browning:  Chief  Poet  of  the  Age. 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  540-544. 
("In  strength  and  depth  of  passion  and  pathos,  in  wild 
humor,  in  emotion  of  every  kind,  Mr.  Browning  is  much 
superior  to  Mr.  Tennyson.") 

MacDonald's  Imagination,  and  Other  Essays,  p.  195. 

Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  1011-1012. 

Nettleship's  Robt.  Browning::  Essays  and  Thoughts. 

Mrs.  Orr:  i.  Life  and  Letters  of  Robt.  Browning,  2  vols. 
2.  Handbook  to  Works. 

Sharp's  Life  of  Robt.  Browning:  (Great  Writers  S.). 

Smiles's  Brief  Biographies  (Philad.),  p.  377. 

Stedman's  Victorian  Poets,  p.  293.  Same,  Scrib  Mo.,  9.  167. 
("  He  is  the  most  intellectual  of  poets,  Tennyson  not  ex- 
cepted." — "The  most  original  and  the  most  unequal  of 
living  poets.") 

A.  Symons's  Tntrod.  to  the  Study  of  Browning.  2d  ed.,  rev. 
("  In  richness  of  nature,  in  scope  and  penetration  of  mind 
and  vision,  in  all  the  potentialities  of  poetry,  he  is  probably 
second  among  English  poets  to  Shakespeare  alone.") 

And.  R.,  11.  113. 


LITERATURE.  319 

Appleton,  6.  533  (Stoddard). 

Allan.,  51.  840;  65.  243. 

Brit.  O.,  80.  i  ("Mr.  Browning  is,  above  all  things,  the  poet  of 
intellect "). 

Chr.  Exam.,  48.  361  ("Mr.  Browning's  mind  is  eminently  dra- 
matic"); 77.  51  ;  86.  295. 

Chr.  Union,  1889,  Dec.  19,  p.  793.  1890,  Nov.  6,  p.  604; 
Dec.  11,  p.  812.  1891,  July  4,  p.  31. 

Contemp.,  4.  I,  133.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  68.  314,  501. 

Contemp.,  23.  934.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  122.  67. 

Contemp.,  44.  701.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  159.  771. 

Contemp.,  35.  289;  57.  141. 

Cornh.,  19.  249. 

Critic,  8.  201,  231. 

Dial  (Chicago),  7.  221. 

Ed.  R.,  120.  537  (Am.  ed.,  p.  277);  130.  164  (Am.  ed.,  p.  83). 

Fortn.,  11.  331 ;  39.  888.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  101.  358. 

Forum,  6.  300  (Esoteric  Browningism). 

Fraser,  43.  170. 

Independent,  1889,  Dec.  19,  p.  13.  1890,  Jan.  2,  p.  i ;  Feb. 
6,  p.  3- 

Internal.  R.,  3.  402-406  ;   6.  176. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  13.  76  ("The  poet  of  psychology");  14.  58, 
127,  157;  17.44. 

Macmil.,  46.  225.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  154.  238. 

Nation,  8.  135  ;  22.  49;  49.  492. 

Nat.  R..  19.  27  (Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and  Browning).  Same, 
Eel.  M.,  64.  273,  415.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  84.  3. 

New  Eng.,  29.  129. 

No.  Am.,  66.  357.  ("  It  is  not  so  much  for  his  expression  of 
isolated  thoughts  as  for  his  power  of  thinking  that  we  value 
Browning."  "  To  us  he  appears  to  have  a  wider  range  and 
greater  freedom  of  movement  than  any  other  of  the  younger 
English  poets."  Lowell.) 

No.  Brit.,  34.  350  (Am.  ed.,  p.  183):  51.  97  (Am.  ed.,  p.  51). 

O.  and  N.,  6.  609. 

Overland,  N.  s.,  3.  645.         Putnam,  7.  372. 

St.  Paul's,  7.  257,  377.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  76.  267,  400.  Same, 
Liv.  Age,  108.  155,  77 1. 

TENNYSON. 

Tennyson   as  a  poet  is   intellectual   and   artistic.     His 
poetry  is  replete  with  thought,  carefully  wrought  in  a  beau- 


32O      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

tiful  form.  The  thought  has  the  characteiistics  of  the  better 
thought  of  the  age,  —  spiritual  and  brooding,  liberal  and 
hopeful,  doubting,  yet  reaching  out  after  a  larger  faith. 
His  art  shows  the  exquisite  finish  obtained  by  assiduous 
work  co-operating  with  genius.  Spirit  and  form,  thought 
and  style,  strength  and  beauty,  are  harmonious,  making  a 
pleasing  impression. 

The  movement  of  Tennyson's  verse  is  smooth  and  equa- 
ble, not  abrupt  and  tumultuous.  Plainness  of  thought  and 
clearness  of  style  fit  his  poems  for  popular  appreciation, 
while  beauty  of  spirit  and  of  form  make  them  classic. 

Tennyson,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  rep- 
resentatives of  the  height  of  poetic  progress,  corresponding 
with  the  general  progress  of  the  age. 

Complete  Works.  Lib.  ed.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.),  8  vols. 

Complete  Poetical  Works,  New  Riverside  ed.  (Bost.),  6  vols. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  3.  2371. 

Bayne :   I.  Essays  in  Biog.  and  Crit.,  ist  S.,  p.  50. 
2.  Lessons  from  my  Masters,  p.  203. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  256. 

Dowden's  Studies  in  Lit.,  1789-1877  (Lond.,  1889),  PP-  195-211. 

Emerson's  Eng.  Traits,  Chap.  14  (Prose  Works,  2.  284). 

Gilfillan's  Literary  Men,  p.  192. 

Gladstone's  Gleanings  of  Past  Years,  V.  2,  Chap.  3.  Same, 
Quar.,  106.  454  (Am.  ed.,  p.  250). 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  540- 
544  ("  Mr.  Tennyson  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  complete 
of  the  poets  of  Queen  Victoria's  time.  No  one  else  has  the 
same  combination  of  melody,  beauty  of  description,  culture, 
and  intellectual  power.  He  has  sweetness  and  strength  in 
exquisite  combination.") 

Maude  G.  Phillips's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit  (N.Y.,  1885X2.491. 

Stedman's  Victorian  Poets,  Chap.  5,  6.  Same,  Scrib.  Mo.  8. 
100, 160.  ("  Certainly  to  be  regarded  in  time  to  come  as,  all 
in  all,  the  fullest  representative  of  the  refined,  speculative, 
complex  Victorian  age."  "  In  technical  excellence,  as  an 
artist  in  verse,  Tennyson  is  the  greatest  of  modern  poets.") 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  6. 

B.  Taylor's  Essays  and  Notes,  p.  i. 

Van  Dyke's  Poetry  of  Tennyson.  Rev.  in  Independent,  1889, 
Dec.  19,  p.  19. 


LITERATURE.  $21 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  488. 

Whipple's  Essays  and  Reviews,  1.  338.  ("  His  poetry  is  marked 
by  intellectual  intensity  as  distinguished  from  intensity  of 
feeling.") 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  6.  656. 

And.  R.,  12.  291. 

Appleton,  7.  353. 

Atlan.,  44.  356. 

Blackw.,  31.  721 ;  65.  453;  86.  608;  96.  555. 

lirit.  Q.,  72.  273  (Am.  ed.,  p.  141).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  147.  786. 

Chr.  Exam  ,  23.  305;   33.  237. 

Chr.  R.,  16.  36. 

Contemp.,  47.  203.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  164.  771.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
104.  459. 

Ed.  R.,  77.  373  (Am.  ed.,  p.  198).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  6.  205. 

Ed.  R.,  110.  247  (Am.  ed.,  p.  125).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  49.  247. 

Fortn.,  2.  385.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  87.  289.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
66.  159. 

Fraser,  42.  245  (Kingsley). 

Independent,  1890.  Jan.  16,  p.  2  (Van  Dyke);    Feb.  6,  p.  20. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  13.  280.  (kl  With  all  his  exquisite  art  he  is 
yet  the  poet  of  the  people.") 

Liv.  Age,  26.  167;   62.  195. 

Macmil.,  27.  143. 

Nat.  R.,  9.  368.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  63.  579. 

New  Eng.,  3.  57;  8.  598;   18.  i. 

No.  Am.,  90.  i ;  133.  82.  ("  Remarkable  for  variety  and  ex- 
cellence, remarkable  for  method  and  manner,  and  remark- 
able for  the  perfection  of  his  art."  Stoddard.) 

No.  Brit,  9.  43  (Am.  ed.,  p.  23).  41.  231  (Am.  ed.,  p.  119). 
Same,  Eel.  M.,  63.  310. 

No.  Brit.,  53.  378.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  109.  195.  Same,  Eel.  M., 
76.  713. 

Presb.  R.,  4.  681  (Milton  and  Tennyson  :  Van  Dyke). 

Putnam,  6.  383. 

Quar.,  49.  Si  ;  70.  385  (Am.  ed.,  p.  211). 

Westm.,  14.  210;  38.  371  (Am.  ed.,  p.  189);  51.  265  (Am.  ed., 
p.  143);  54.  85  (Am.  ed.,  p.  43> 


322      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

BRYANT  AND   LONGFELLOW. 

181.   Is  Bryant  a  greater  poet  than  Longfellow  f 

« 

Of  American  poets  Bryant  and  Longfellow  stand  at  the 
head.  Both  were  men  of  culture  and  of  high  character. 
Their  poems  are  but  the  expression  of  the  beauty  and 
elevation  of  their  life. 

Bryant  is  the  more  original,  Longfellow  is  the  more  sym- 
pathetic and  popular.  Bryant  is  on  a  higher  plane,  Longfel- 
low is  broader  and  more  various.  Bryant  is  more  the  poet  of 
nature,  Longfellow  of  humanity.  Bryant  stands  more  apart, 
as  by  himself,  to  be  admired  and  revered  ;  Longfellow,  with 
a  heart  beating  with  the  common  heart,  is  one  to  be  loved. 

BRYANT. 

With  Bryant  American  poetry  first  rose  to  a  degree  of  ex- 
cellence which  gives  it  its  place  of  distinction  in  the  national 
literature.  What  his  poetry  lacks  in  quantity  it  makes  up  in 
quality.  The  superior  excellence  of  the  poems  of  his  youth 
was  maintained  in  all  his  subsequent  productions  to  the  end 
of  his  long  life. 

In  elevation  and  purity  his  poems  correspond  to  the  lofti- 
ness of  his  poetic  ideal.  They  are  the  clear  reflection  of  his 
own  spirit.  His  mind  was  grave,  contemplative,  somewhat 
solitary,  delighting  in  natural  scenes  and  objects,  inclined 
to  thought  high  and  large,  imbued  with  a  profound  sense  of 
the  moral,  and  cherishing  a  taste  severely  simple.  He  is 
strictly  original,  and  his  poetry  partakes  of  the  character- 
istics and  of  the  limitations  of  his  mind.  His  style  is 
eminently  poetic,  and  is  simple,  clear,  and  finished.  His 
poetry,  from  its  intrinsic  excellence,  must  always  occupy  a 
high  place  in  American  literature. 

Poetical  Works  (N.  Y.,  1883),  2  vols. 

Godwin's  Life  of,  V.  i,  Chap.  4,  6,  9,  14,  21 ;  V.  2,  Chap.  24, 

42-44,  50. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  270. 


LITER  A  TURE.  323 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  371.  ("  His  poems  are  characterized  by  ex- 
treme purity  and  elegance  in  the  choice  of  words,  a  com- 
pact and  vigorous  diction,  great  delicacy  of  fancy  and 
elevation  of  thought,  and  a  genial  yet  solemn  religious 
philosophy."  "As  a  minute  observer  of  nature,  he  is 
almost  without  a  rival  among  poets.") 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1878,  p.  64. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  422  (Stoddard). 

Curtis's  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of.     Commem.  Address, 

PP.  50-53- 

Duyckinck's  Cyc.  of  Am.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  2.  183. 

Encyc.  lirit.,  art.  Am.  Lit.,  1.  732.  ("  Mr.  Bryant  stands  on  a 
hij^h  level,  but  the  space  he  covers  is  limited.") 

The  First  Century  of  the  Republic,  pp.  360-362.  Same,  Har- 
per, 52.  410-411.  ("He  is  perhaps  unequalled  among 
our  American  poets  in  his  grasp  of  the  elemental  life  of 
nature."  Whipple.) 

Godwin's  Out  of  the  Past,  p.  9. 

Griswold's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Am.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  p.  169. 

Hill's  Bryant  (Am.  Authors  S.),  Chap.  12. 

The  Homes  and  Haunts  of  Our  Elder  Poets  (N.  Y.,  1881),  p.  i. 
Same,  Scrib.  Mo.,  16.  479  (H.  N.  Powers). 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit,  V.  2,  Chap.  2,  pp.  35-49. 

Stedman's  Poets  of  Am.,  Chap.  3. 

Stoddard's  Sketch  of  Life  in  Poetical  Works,  Household  ed. 

Symington's  Life  of. 

B.  Taylor's  Crit.  Essays  and  Lit.  Notes,  p.  258. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  383-387. 

Chippie's  Lit.  and  Life,  p.  303.  ("As  a  poet  his  nature  is 
not  broad,  sensitive,  and  genial,  but  intense,  serious,  and 
deep."  "To  this  singular  purity  and  depth  of  sentiment, 
he  adds  a  corresponding  simplicity,  closeness,  clearness, 
and  beauty  of  expression.") 

Wilkinson's  Free  Lance  in  the  Field  of  Life  and  Letters,  p.  184. 
Same,  Chr.  R.,  24.  391.  («  Thoroughly  artistic,  his  poetry 
is  equally  inartificial."  "  His  poetry  is  not  the  loftiest, 
but  it  is  the  most  perfect  of  poetry.") 

bid.,  p.  218  (Bryant's  Iliad). 

\m.  Q.  Obs.,  2  308. 

Vppleton,  6.  477. 

Vtlan.,  13.  233. 

ilackw.,  11.  686;  16.  310,  311  ;  31.  646. 

Commonwealth  (Denver,  1890),  3.  24  (Tibbals). 

Dial  (Chicago),  1.   186;  3.  273.     ("There  is  no  danger  that 


324     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

any  name  so  far  known  in  American  letters  will  outrank 

his  own."     H.  N.  Powers.) 
Eel.  M.,  74.  371 ;  91.  434. 
For.  Q.,  10.  121. 
Independent,  1874,  Nov.  5,  pp.  i,  16 ;  1878,  June  20,  p.  15; 

1883,  Mar.  22,  p.  10. 
Internal.  R.,  1.  433.     (u  At  home  and  abroad  alike,  the  position 

assigned  him  is  in  the  front  rank  of  the  poets  of  his  time." 

Ray  Palmer.) 
Lit.  W.,  (Bost),  15.  149. 
Liv.  Age,  61.  387  ;  123.  500. 
Meth.  Q.,  19.  41. 
Nat.  Q.,  37.  354. 
New.  Eng.,  39.  614. 

No.  Am.,  13.  380;  34.  502;  55.  500;  128.  497. 
Retros.,  9.  307,  314-315- 

LONGFELLOW. 

Longfellow  gave  his  life  chiefly  to  the  production  of  his 
poems.  It  is  in  these  that  he  has  put  his  heart  and  mind, 
with  the  influence  he  might  thus  impart  for  the  elevation  of 
men. 

As  a  poet,  Longfellow  is  especially  ethical  and  artistic. 
With  an  ardent  love  for  both  the  good  and  the  beautiful, 
he  makes  them  one.  His  poems,  though  not  didactic,  are 
deeply  imbued  with  the  moral.  They  partake  of  his  own 
spirit  of  peace,  of  love,  of  gentleness,  of  purity. 

Both  in  thought  and  expression  they  are  on  a  level  with 
the  common  mind ;  hence  their  wide  acceptance  and  influ- 
ence. The  common  thought,  close  and  dear  to  all,  they 
clothe  in  an  attractive  form,  making  it  dearer.  In  thus 
touching  a  note  to  which  all  hearts  respond,  Longfellow  has 
made  himself  the  poet  of  all,  and  has  won  their  love.  If 
neither  so  deep  nor  so  high  as  some,  he  is  in  style  simple 
and  clear,  in  thought  pure  and  elevating. 

Poetical  Works,  Riverside  ed.,  6  vols. 

Life  of,  ed.  by  Snml.  Longfellow,  3  vols. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  1123. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  623.    ("  As  a  poet  he  appeals  to  the  universal 


LITER  A  TURE.  325 

affections*  of  humanity,  and  expresses  with  the  most  deli- 
cate beauty  thoughts  which  find  sympathy  in  all  minds.") 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1882.  p.  478.  ("  He  is,  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
word,  the  people's  poet.") 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  4.  10. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Am.  Authors,  p.  28. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1890),  6.  710  (Stoddard). 

Duyckinck's  Cyc.  of  Am.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  2.  443. 

Encyc.  Brit,  art.  Am.  Lit.,  1.  731  ("  Every  sentence  that  Long- 
fellow has  penned  is  as  clear  as  crystal  and  as  pure  as 
snow")  ;  14.  860  ("  In  Longfellow  the  poet  was  the  flower 
and  fruit  of  the  man "). 

The  First  Century  of  the  Republic,  pp.  372-373.  Same,  Har- 
per, 52.  514-515.  ("The  breadth  of  his  sympathy,  the 
variety  of  acquisitions,  the  plasticity  of  his  imagination, 
the  sonorousness  and  weight  of  his  verse,  the  vividness  of 
his  imagery,  the  equality,  the  beauty,  the  beneficence  of 
his  disposition,  make  him  universally  attractive  and  uni- 
versally intelligible."  Whipple.) 

Gilfillan's  Mod.  Lit.  and  Literary  Men  (N.  Y.),  p.  327.  ("One 
of  the  most  pleasing  characteristics  of  this  writer's  works 
is  their  intense  humanity.") 

Griswold's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Am.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  p.  355.  ("  Of 
all  our  poets  Longfellow  best  deserves  the  title  of  artist.") 

The  Homes  and  Haunts  of  Our  Elder  Poets  (N.  Y.,  1881), 
p.  67.  Same,  Scrib.  Mo.,  17.  I  (Stoddard). 

Kennedy's  Longfellow. 

Tributes  to  Longfellow  and  Emerson  by  the  Mass.  Hist.  Soc. 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Chap.  3.  ("He  was  the  St.  John 
of  our  American  apostles  of  song.") 

Stedman's  Poets  of  Am.,  Chap.  6.  Same,  Cent.,  4.  926.  ("  He 
was  a  lyrical  artist  whose  taste  outranked  his  inspiration.") 

B.  Taylor's  Crit.  Essays  and  Lit.  Notes,  p.  296. 

Underwood's  Longfellow. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Entr.  Lit..  2.  519. 

Whipple's  Essays  and  Reviews,  1.  58-66.  Same,  No.  Am., 
58.  22-29.  ("  Tne  gre^t  characteristic  of  Longfellow,  that 
of  addressing  the  moral  nature  through  the  imagination,  of 
linking  moral  truth  to  intellectual  beauty,  is  a  far  greater 
excellence.") 

Atlan.,  12.  769  ;   20.  188  ;   49.  819. 

Brit.  Q.,  76.  34  (Am.  ed.,  p.  18).  Same,  Liv.  Age,  155.  306 
(The  Puritan  Element  in  Longfellow). 

Chamb.  J.,  22.  310.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  43.  522. 


326      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Chr.  R.,  24.  31. 

Dial  (Ch.),  2.  275. 

Fortn.,  39.  100.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  156.  296.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

100.  365. 

Fraser,  37.  295  (Evangeline).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  17.  145. 
Fraser,  47.  367.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  29.  228. 
Harper,  65.  123. 

Internal.  R.,  2.  721  (Ray  Palmer). 
Lit.  W.  (Best.),  12.  74-88;  13.  112. 
Liv.  Age,  19.  481;  98.  241,  313. 
Meth.  Q.,  19.  568. 
Nation,  4.  369,  492  (Mr.  Longfellow's  Trans,  of  the  Divine 

Comedy);  5.  226;  34.  266. 
Nat.  R.,  8.  198.     Same,  Eel.   M.,  46.  459.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

60.  399.     (••  He  is  unquestionably  the  most  popular  poet 

of  the  day.") 

New  Eng.,  6.  548  (Evangeline :  somewhat  depreciatory.) 
No.  Am.,  55.  114;    66.  215  (Evangeline);  104.  531;   105.  124 

(Longfellow's  Trans,  of  the  Divine  Comedy);  108.  669 

(The  New  Eng.  Tragedies). 


FICTION. 

182.  Has  the  prevalence  of  fiction  in  modern  literature  been, 
on  the  whole,  a  good  rather  than  an  evil  ? 

Fiction,  as  the  legitimate  creature  of  the  imagination, 
forms  a  large  part  of  literature.  Not  only  the  fable,  al- 
legory, and  romance,  but  the  drama,  the  epic,  and  other 
forms  of  poetry,  are  as  really  fiction  as  the  novel.  The 
term  fiction,  is  now,  however,  commonly  used  as  synony- 
mous with  novels,  thus  denoting  a  distinct  and  important 
branch  of  literature,  —  important  in  respect  to  quantity,  if 
not  quality. 

In  the  representation  of  character  and  of  life,  fiction 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  drama,  which  to  a  large 
extent  it  has  superseded ;  yet  it  is  larger  in  its  scope,  and 
more  various.  Its  merit,  like  that  of  other  literature,  de- 
pends on  the  genius  of  the  individual  writer ;  but,  taken  as 
a  whole,  it  is  lowest  in  the  scale  of  literature-.  As  a  reflec- 


LITER  A  TURE.  327 

tion  of  life  it  is  ethical,  but  an  ethical  mixture,  containing 
as  well  the  bad  as  the  good.  But  the  bad  is  likewise  found, 
more  or  less,  in  all  kinds  of  literature. 

The  practical  question  has  respect  to  the  influence  of 
novel  reading  on  the  mind,  character,  and  life.  It  may,  by 
exciting  the  interest,  give  mental  refreshment,  at  the  same 
time  imparting  instruction ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  indulged 
to  excess  till  it  has  become  a  vice,  it  may  dissipate  the  mind 
and  weaken  and  debauch  the  moral  powers.  Much  depends 
on  the  character  of  the  fiction  read,  as  well  as  on  the  self- 
control  of  the  reader.  Indiscriminate  or  excessive  novel 
reading  is  unquestionably  injurious.  This  is  an  abuse,  to 
which  there  may  be,  in  many  cases,  a  temptation  not  easily 
resisted. 

The  rule  for  all  kinds  of  books,  to  read  the  best,  applies 
especially  to  fiction ;  nevertheless  mediocre  books,  morally 
wholesome,  may  be  better  suited  to  mediocre  minds  than 
the  works  of  genius. 

Fiction,  then,  has,  in  respect  to  both  the  writer  and  the 
reader,  its  use  and  abuse  :  in  the  great  mass  of  fiction 
written  and  read,  which  exceeds  the  other,  the  use  or  the 
abuse  ? 

Abercrombie's   Inquiries   concerning  the   Intellectual    Powers 

(Bost,  1835),  p.  132. 

Bayne's  Essays  in  Biog.  and  Crit.,  V.  I,  Chap.  7. 
Coleridge's  Works  (Harper's  ed.),  4-  318. 
Forsyte's  Novels  and  Novelists  of  the  i8th  Century. 
Foster's  Crit.  Essays,  1.  417. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  20. 
Helps's  Friends  in  Council,  ist  S.,  V.  i,  Chap.  6. 
Holland's  Every  Day  Topics,  1.  269;   2.  94,  105. 
Lanier,  The  Eng.  Novel. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  5.  467-471. 
Mahan's  Intellectual  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1845),  PP-  I53-I5S- 
"Manners  Makyth  Man"  (N.  Y.),  pp.  123-124. 
Masson's  Brit.  Novelists  and  their  Styles  (Bost,  1859). 
Munger's  On  the  Threshold,  pp.  166-169. 
Porter's  Books  and  Reading,  Chap.  15. 
D.  G.  Thompson's  Philos.  of  Fiction  in  Lit.  (N.  Y.). 


328      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Thwing's  Reading  of  Books,  Chap.  5,  6. 

Tuckerman's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  esp.  pp.  320-327. 

Van  Doren's  Mercantile  Morals,  Chap.  u. 

Miss  Willard's  How  to  Win,  Chap.  10. 

Whipple's  Lit.  and  Life,  pp.  42-58.     Same,  No.  Am.,  69.  383- 

391- 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  9.  362  (Moral  and  Literary  Influence 

of  Novels :   Prof.  E.  D.  Sanborn). 
And.  R.,  3.  312  (The  Moral  Purpose  of  the   later  American 

Novel:  Richardson);  11.  23  (The  Moral  Purpose  in  How- 

ells's  Novels:  Anna  L.  Dawes);  12.  134  (The  Psychology 

of  the  Modern  Novel:    Prof.  G.  T.  Ladd). 
Atlan.,  6.    129;    33.  684  (Growth  of  the    Novel:    Lathrop); 

34.  313  (The  Novel  and  its  Future:    Lathrop);   51.  464 

(Warner);   64.  527. 
Blackw.,  108.  449  (On  Fiction  as  an  Educator).     Same,  Eel. 

M.,  75.  706.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  107.  307. 
Chamb.  J .,  60.  449  (The  Charm  of  Fiction).     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

158.  636. 
Chr.   Exam.,  12.  83-87;   32.  i   (Philos.  of  Fiction);  75.   176 

(The  Reality  of  Fiction). 
Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  7.  80. 
Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  1.  247. 
Chr.  Obs.,  16.  227,  230,  298,  371,  425. 
Chr.  Un.,  1890,  Feb.  13,  p.  227;  Feb.  20,  p.  262. 
Contemp.,  60.  234  (Morality  in). 
Dial  (Chicago),   3.   no  (A   Certain   Dangerous   Tendency  in 

Novels). 

Eel.  M.,  68.  32  (The  Uses  of  Fiction). 
Ed.  R.,  173.  31  (Am.  Fiction). 
Ev.  Sat.,  10.  474  (The  Morality  of  Modern  Novels) ;   17.  463 

Novel  Reading). 
Forum,  5.  57,  226. 
Fraser,  72.  746.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  66.  192.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

88.  183. 

Internat.  R.,  10.  168  (Fiction  and  Pub.  Libraries). 
Lib.  J.,  1.  49,  277  :   2.  152;   4.  330  (Fiction  in  Pub.  Libraries)  ; 

4.  341  (The  Evil  of  Unlimited  Freedom  in  the  Use  of  Ju- 
venile Fiction);  4.  345-362  (Sensational  Fiction  in   Pub. 

Libraries). 
Lippinc.,  24.  253. 
Lit.  and  Theo.  R.,  2.  302-304. 
Liv.  Age,  78.  352;  83.  569  (The  Effect  of  Novel  Reading  on 

Morals) ;   133.  667. 


LITER  A  TURE.  329 

Lond.  Q.7  27.  100.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  68.  54. 

Meth.  Q.,  20.  181  (The  Modern  Novel). 

Nation,  2.  138,  204;   47.  329. 

Nat.  Q.,  2.  143  (Fr.  Romances  and  Am.  Morals). 

Nat.  R.,  8.  144;  11.  400  (Fr.  Fiction:  the  lowest  deep).    Same, 

Liv.  Age,  67.  451. 
New  Eng.,  50.  333. 
N.  Princ.,  1.  386;  2.  305. 
1 9th  Cent.,  5.  24.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  140.  349. 
No.  Am.,  92.  465  (The  Lit.  of  Power);   131.  79  (Profligacy  in 

Fiction). 

No.  Brit.,  26.  209  (Am.  ed.,  p.  112). 
Putnam,  10.  384. 
Quar.,  34.  349  (Am.  ed.  p.  251). 


SCOTT   AS   NOVELIST  AND   POET. 

183.   Is  the  enduring  fame  of  Scott  dependent  more  on  his 
novels  than  on  his  poems  ? 

Both  in  his  poems  and  in  his  novels  Scott  struck  a  new 
vein  in  imaginative  literature,  which  brought  him  fame  and 
money.  The  celebrity  which  his  poems  had  won,  his  novels 
much  increased.  Possessing  in  general  like  literary  char- 
acteristics, they  are  yet  distinct  productions,  marking  their 
author  as  a  poet  and  a  novelist  of  original  genius  and  ex- 
traordinary merit. 

Scott's  writings  are,  in  their  general  character,  objective. 
The  author  himself  does  not  appear  in  them.  They  are 
narrative,  historic,  descriptive,  and  not  psychologic,  intro- 
spective, or  didactic.  They  aim  to  reproduce  the  past, 
making  it  real  and  vivid  in  the  present.  They  are  ex- 
ternal, and  to  some  may  seem  even  superficial ;  yet  their 
influence,  if  not  deep,  is  wide. 

The  genius  of  Scott  is  fertile  and  facile.  Considering 
the  superiority  of  his  work  his  productive  power  was  amaz- 
ing. Possessed  of  a  huge  receptivity,  of  the  vast  mental 
treasures  he  had  gained  he  made  free  and  large  use.  Of 
the  nature  and  extent  of  his  genius  his  works  are  the  sure 


330    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

attestation.  Was  its  height  reached  in  his  poems,  or  later 
in  his  novels  ?  Was  he  a  greater  novelist  than  poet  ?  He 
is,  in  this  question,  compared  with  himself.  In  any  case, 
even  as  compared  with  others,  he  was  unquestionably  at 
once  a  great  poet  and  a  great  novelist. 

Novels  and  Poetical  Works. 

Autobiography  of  (Philad.,  1831). 

Lockhart's  Life  of. 

Hutton's  Scott  (Eng.  Men.  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  4,  5,  10. 

Mackenzie's  Sir  Walter  Scott :  The  Story  of  his  Life. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1975-1977- 

Bryant's  Prose  Writings  (N.  Y.,  1884),  2.  310. 

Carlyle's  Essays,  4.  185.      Same,  Westm.,  28.  293  (Am.  ed., 

P-  154). 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit,  7th  Period :  Poets,  Novelists. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  501. 
Emerson's  Complete  Works,  Riverside  ed.,  V.  n,  Miscellany, 

p.  373.     Same,  Tributes  to  Longfellow  and  Emerson  by  the 

Mass.  Hist  Soc.,  p.  59. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  19.  818;  9th  ed.,  21.  544. 
Jeffrey's  Contributions  to   the  Ed.  R.     Mod.  Brit.  Essayists, 

V.  6  (Philad.,  1054).     Poems,  pp.  359,  367.    Same,  Ed.  R., 

6.  i  ;  16.  263.     Novels,  pp.  523-548.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  24. 

208;   28.  193;  29.  403;    33.  i  ;   37.  204. 
Jerrold's  Days  with  Great  Authors. 
Mr*.  Otiphanfi  Lit.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  V.  i,  Chap.  n. 
Maude  G.  Phitlips's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.Y.,  1885),  2.  265- 
Shairp's  Aspects  of  Poetry,  Chap.  13  (The  Homeric  Element  in 

Sir  Walter  Scott).     Same,  Good  Words,  16.  500.     Same, 

Liv.  Acre,  126.  373. 

Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library  (N.  Y.,  1875),  p.  174. 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  252-259. 
Tuckerman's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  pp.  280-284. 
Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  4.  186. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  321. 
Atlan.,  46.  313. 
Blackw.,  6.  262;  8.  435;   110.  229.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  404. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  110.  579. 
Contemp.,  33.  514.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  139.  298. 
Ed.  R.,  55.  61  (Novels). 
Liv.  Age,  76.  187  (Novels). 
Nation,  13.  103. 


LITERATURE.  331 

Nat.  R.,  6.  444  (Novels).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  57.  563. 
No.  Am.,  32.  386 (Novels);   36.  289 (Novels);  46.431;  99.383. 
New  York  R.,  7.  137. 

Quar.,  3.  492  (Lady  of  the  Lake);  26.  109  (Novels);  27.  337 
(Novels). 


THACKERAY  AND  DICKENS. 
184.    Is  Thackeray  a  greater  novelist  than  Dickens  ? 

Thackeray  and  Dickens  stand  together  in  the  first  rank 
of  modern  English  novelists.  While  each  has  a  genius  dis- 
tinct and  individual,  when  compared  they  are  found  to  pos- 
sess characteristics  like  and  unlike. 

Both  were  humorists,  but  with  a  difference.  The  humor 
of  Thackeray  partook  more  of  satire,  while  that  of  Dickens 
was  more  genial.  Thackeray's  characterizations  are  more 
realistic,  while  Dickens  makes  prominent  and  impressive 
characteristic  traits.  Thackeray  takes  his  characters  chiefly 
from  the  higher,  Dickens  from  the  middle  and  lower  classes. 
Dickens  is  more  popular,  while  Thackeray  has  met  with 
warm  appreciation  from  a  circle  more  select.  Dickens  has 
a  more  luxuriant  imagination,  Thackeray  is  more  cultivated 
and  artistic.  In  style  Dickens  is  more  diffuse  and  expan- 
sive, Thackeray  more  compact  and  incisive. 

THACKERAY. 

Thackeray's  world,  as  found  in  his  novels,  is  a  real  world, 
made  up  of  real  characters  living  a  real  life.  It  is  not,  in- 
deed, the  whole  of  the  great  actual  world  ;  but  its  characters, 
with  their  lives,  are  representative,  and  show  a  considerable 
part  of  this  great  world.  The  true  sketch  of  the  characters, 
in  their  lives,  discloses  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  na- 
ture. They  all  speak  and  act  consistently  with  their  nature 
and  circumstances,  much  as  do  actual  men  and  women  in 
real  life. 

Thackeray's  writings  are  humorous  and  satirical,  with  oc- 
casional pathos.  The  moral  of  his  stories  pervades  them 


332     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

throughout,  and  is  obvious  and  impressive.  The  purpose 
is  plain,  to  show  human  nature  as  it  is,  in  its  weakness  and 
wickedness  as  well  as  in  its  truth  and  nobility.  It  is  to  show 
that  true  worth  lies  in  personal  character,  and  is  not  found 
in  mere  rank  or  factitious  distinctions. 

The  moral  of  his  stories  is  the  moral  of  life ;  and,  though 
pointed  out  by  occasional  hints,  is  in  general  left  to  the 
reader's  own  inference.  The  style  is  free  and  clear,  con- 
veying rather  an  impression  of  the  subject  than  of  the  per- 
sonality of  the  author.  In  short,  while  Thackeray  is  more 
realistic  than  ideal,  his  writings  are  fraught  with  both  inter- 
est and  instruction. 

Thackeray's  Novels. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe,  from  1815  to  1852,  V.  i,  Chap.  5, 

sec.  70. 

Allibone's  Diet  of  Authors,  3.  2380. 
Anecdote  Biographies  of  Thackeray  and  Dickens,  ed.  by  R.  H. 

Stoddard  (Bric-a-Brac  S.). 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc..  15.  680. 
Baldwin's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Prose,  pp. 

223-225. 
Brown's  Spare  Hours,  2d  S.,  pp.  229,  239.     Same,  No.  Brit., 

40.  210  (Am.  ed.,  p.  i't).     Same,  Liv.  Age.  81.  3. 
Emerson's  Eng.  Traits  (Bost.,  1856),  Chap.  14,  p.  246. 
Encyc.  Brit,  23.  214. 
Fields's  Yesterdays  with  Authors,  p.  u. 
Godwin's  Out  of  the  Past,  p.  326.     Same,  Putnam,  6.  283. 
B.  Jerrold's  Days  with  Great  Authors. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  5.  469. 
Masson's  Brit.  Novelists  and  their  Styles,  Lect  4. 
Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Encr-  Lit.,  pp.  1060-1064. 
Taine's  Hist  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  2. 
B.  Taylor's  Crit.  Essays  and  Lit.  Notes,  p.  134.     Same,  Atlan., 

13.  371. 

Trollope's  Thackeray  (Eng.  Men.  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  3-5,  9. 
Tuckerman's  Hist  of  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  pp.  298-302. 

h's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  415-418. 
Whipple's  Character  and  Characteristic  Men,  Chap.  7.     Same, 

Chr.  Exam..  76.  211. 
Chr.  Exam.,  60.  102. 
Cornh.,  9.  129  (In   Mfmoriam.  by  Dickens).     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

80.  476. 


LITER  A  TURE.  33  3 

Cornh.,  9.  134  (Trollope).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  62.  64, 

Eel.  M.,  64.  340. 

Ed.  R.,  87.  46  (Am.  ed.,  p.  25).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  16.  271. 

Ed.  R.,  99.  196  (Am  ed.,  p.  98).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  40.  483. 

Ed.  R.,  137.  95  (Am.  ed.,  p.  49).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  116.  579, 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  80.  513. 
Phraser,  69.  401.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  62.  236. 
Harper,  49.  533. 
Lippinc.,  3.  150. 

Liv.  Age,  47.  562;  80.  325,  413. 
Lond.  Q.,  22.  375.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  63.  38. 
Nat.  Q.,  39.  293. 
Nat.  R.,  2.  177. 

1 9th  Cent.,  5.  35-38.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  140.  356-358. 
No.  Am.,  77.  199. 

Quar,  84.  153  (Am.  ed.,  p.  82).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  20.  497. 
Westm.,  59.  363  (Am.  ed  ,  p.  189).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  37.  387. 
Westm.,  74.  500  (Am.  ed.,  p.  267);  82.  172  (Am.  ed.,  p.  77). 

DICKENS. 

Dickens,  in  the  portrayal  of  character  is  more  idealistic 
than  Thackeray ;  for  many  of  his  characters,  though  taken 
from  real  life,  are,  by  being  made  to  represent  particular 
traits,  exaggerated  and  unreal.  His  ideal  was  not  high,  nor 
were  his  characters  exalted.  His  world  is  that  of  the  com- 
mon people,  and  his  ample  and  vivid  representation  of  their 
character  and  life  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  his  immense 
popularity.  The  service  he  thus  rendered  the  masses  was  in 
accord  with  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  times. 

A  generous  sympathy  pervades  his  writings,  imparting  to 
them  a  perpetual  charm.  Though  not  didactic,  his  novels 
have  a  purpose,  and  are  moral  in  their  influence.  His  hu- 
mor is  genial  and  contagious.  With  a  fertile  mind  and  a 
teeming  imagination,  his  creations  form  an  ideal  world, 
in  which  multitudes  have  found  mingled  interest  and 
instruction. 

Dickens's  Novels. 

Alison's  Hist,  of  Europe  from  1815-1852,  V.  I,  Chap.  5,  sec.  69. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  500. 


334     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Anecdote  Biographies  of  Thackeray  and  Dickens,  ed.  by  R.  H. 

Stoddard  (Bric-a-Brac  S.),  N.  Y.,  1874. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  6.  88. 
Baldwin's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Prose,  pp. 

217-225. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  311. 
Emerson's  Eng.  Traits  (Bost.,  1856),  Chap.  14,  pp.  245-246. 
Encyc.  Brit,  7.  173. 

Fields's  Yesterdays  with  Authors,  p.  127. 
Forsters  Life  of  Dickens,  V.  3,  Chap.  14. 
B.  Jerrold's  Days  with  Great  Authors. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  5.  469. 
.Masson's  Hrit.  Novelists  and  their  Styles,  Lect.  4. 
Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  1054-1060,  1062-1063. 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  5,  Chap.  i. 
Tuckerman's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  pp.  295-298. 
Ward's  Dickens  (Eng.  Men.  of  Letters  S.). 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  438. 
Whipple:  i.  Lit.  and  Life,  p.  42.     Same,  No.  Am..  69.  383. 

2.  Success  and  its  Conditions,  p.  250.     Same,  Atlan., 

19.  546. 
Atlan.,  38.  474. 
Black w.,  109.  673.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  257.    Same,  Liv.  Age, 

110.  29. 

Brit.  Q.,  35.  135. 
Chr.  Exam.,  27.  161;  32.  15. 
Contemp.,  10.  203.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  100.  707. 
Eel.  M.,  73.  103;  75.  217. 
Ed.  R.,  68.  75  (Am.  ed.,  p.  41). 
Fortn.,  17.  141.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  78.  445. 
Fraser,  21.  381  ;  42.  698.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  22.  247. 
Internal.  R..  1.  417. 
Liv.  A^e,  58.  263. 

Loncl.  Q.,  35.  265.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  95.  68 1. 
Nation,  10.  380 
Nat.  Q.,  1.  91. 

Nat.  R.,  7.  45$.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  59.  643. 
igth  Cent.,  5.  33-35.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  140.  354-35°". 
No.  Am.,  106.  671:  114.  413. 
No.  Brit.,  4.  165.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  5.  601. 
No.   F>rit.,  15.   57  (Am.  ed.,  p.  30),  Thackeray  and  Dickens. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  30.  97.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  16.  370. 
O.  and  N.,  3.  480. 
Putnam,  5.  263. 


LITERATURE.  335 

Quar.,  59.  484  (Am.  ed.,  p.  271);  64.  83  (Am.  ed.,  p.  46) ;   132. 

125  (Am.  ed.,  p.  65). 
Westm.,  27.  194;  82.  414  (Am.  ed.,  p.  194).    Same,  Eel.  M., 

64.  42. 


GEORGE  ELIOT  AND  MRS.  BROWNING. 

185.    Does  George  Eliot,  as  a  woman  of  genius,  surpass 
Mrs.  Browning1} 

Of  the  literary  writers  of  their  time  George  Eliot  and 
Mrs.  Browning  stand  in  the  first  rank.  Their  respective 
fields,  like  their  genius,  though  not  the  same,  were  similar. 
With  a  womanly  heart  each  possessed  a  masculine  strength 
and  reach  of  thought.  Each  was  actuated  in  her  work  by 
a  high  moral  aim,  and  each  contributed  her  share  to  the  so- 
lution of  the  problems  of  life.  For  it  was  not  for  mere  art 
that  they  wrought,  but  for  the  production  of  high  and  be- 
neficent thought.  The  power  that  was  in  them  they  used  to 
purpose,  and  in  their  work  appears  their  own  greatness. 

GEORGE  Euor. 

The  genius  and  fame  of  George  Eliot  are  identified 
chiefly  with  her  novels.  In  these  she  shows  the  strength, 
comprehension,  and  originality  of  a  mind  more  masculine 
than  feminine.  They  are  weighty  with  thought.  Art, 
indeed,  is  not  wanting,  but  it  is  secondary  to  thought. 

Her  novels  are  psychological,  dramatic,  ethical.  First 
a  Christian  of  the  Evangelical  type,  and  finally  a  Positivist 
with  no  assured  faith  in  God  or  immortality,  she  clings  with 
the  firmer  grasp  to  duty,  and  makes  self-denial  a  vital  ele- 
ment of  true  character.  Sceptical  as  tried  by  her  first  be- 
lief, she  still  has  a  faith,  though  to  many  it  seems  maimed, 
incomplete,  and  unsatisfactory.  She  is  sincerely  and 
deeply  religious,  profoundly  serious ;  yet  with  her  gravity 
and  sadness  her  writings  are  seasoned  with  genuine  humor. 
Strength,  depth,  and  comprehensiveness  express  some  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  her  mind  and  of  her  work. 


336      REFERENCES  FOR.  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Complete  Works  (Harpers  ed.),  12  vols. 

Life  and  Letters,  ed.  by  J.  \V.  Cross. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1880,  p.  241. 

Miss  Blind's  George  Eliot  (Famous  Women  S.),  Chap.  7-11, 

I3-I4- 
Miss   Cleveland's   George   Eliot's   Poetry   and   other   Studies 

(N.  Y.  and  Bost.,  1885). 
Cooke's  George  Eliot. 
Dowden's  Studies  in  Lit.,  1789-1877  (Lond.,  1888),  pp.  240, 

271. 
Mutton's  Essays  in  Lit.  Criticism,  p.  227.    ("  Few  minds  at  once 

so  speculative  and  so  creative  have  ever  put  their  mark  on 

literature.") 

Jos.  Jacobs's  Essiys  and  Reviews. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  V.  5,  Lect.  60. 
McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  649-651. 

("George  Eliot  is  genius  and  culture.") 
Morley's  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  1078-1080.    (' George 

Eliot's  novels  will  cloud  no  true  faith  ;  they  are  the  work  of 

a  woman  of  rare  genius,  whose  place  is,  for  all  time,  among 

the  greatest  novelists  our  country  has  produced.") 
B.  Taylor's  Crit.  Essays  and  Lit.  Notes,  p.  339. 
Tuckerman's  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  pp.  288-290. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  470. 
Wilkinson's  Free  Lance  in  the  Field  of  Life  and  Letters,  p.  I. 
Abba  Goold  Woolson's  George  Eliot  and  her  Heroines. 
And.  R.,  3.  519. 
Atlan.,  18.  479. 
Blackw.,  129.  255.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  149.  664.    Same,  Eel.  M., 

96.  433. 

Blackw.,  133.  524  (Shakespeare  and  George  Eliot). 
Brit.  Q.,  57.  407;  81.  316. 
Cent.,  1.  57. 
Contemp  ,  20.  403.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  79.  562.     Same,  Liv.  A^e, 

115.  ico. 

Contemp..  39.  173.     Same,  Liv.  Age.,  148.  561. 
Contemp.,  47.  372  (Hutton).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  165.  3. 
Cornh.,  43.  152.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  148.  731. 
Dial  (Ch.)«  1.  181. 
Eel.  M.,  88.  in. 
Ed.  R.,  110.  223  (Am.  ed.,  p.  114)  ;  144.  442  (Am.  ed.,  p.  229). 

("  Her  insight,  her  wisdom,  her  power,  her  tenderness,  her 

knowledge  of  human  nature,  have  scarcely  ever  been  called 

in  question.") 


LITER  A  TURE.  337 

Fortn.,  19.  192;  43.  309.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  165.  23.  ("  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  she  stands  entirely  apart  and  above  all 
writers  of  fiction,  at  any  rate  in  England,  by  her  philosophic 
power  and  general  mental  caliber.") 

Internat.  R.,  4.  68;  7.  17;  10.  447,  497. 

Liv.  Age,  148.  318  ;  164.  638. 

Mind,  6.  378. 

Nation,  23.  230,  245  ;  31.  456;  40.  283,  325. 

Nat.  (2-,  1.  455- 

Nat.  R.,  11.  191. 

New  Eng.,  53.  143. 

1 9th  Cent.,  9.  778.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  149.  791. 

1 9th  Cent.,  17.  464. 

No.  Am.,  116.  432;  124.  31. 

No.  Brit.,  45.  197. 

Quar.,  108.  469  (Am.  ed.,  p.  245). 

Westm.,  110.  105  (Am.  ed.,  p.  50);  116.  154  (Am.  ed.,  p.  72); 
117.  65  (Am.  ed.,  p.  30)  ;  124.  207-208  ("  The  head  of  a 
man  of  genius  on  the  shoulders  of  a  highly  sensitive  and 
nervous  woman,  —  such  is  the  shortest  description  we  can 
suggest  of  George  Eliot.") 


MRS.  BROWNING. 

Mrs.  Browning  had  a  strong  and  active  mind  in  a  frail 
body.  She  had  a  high  degree  of  the  poetic  temperament, 
with  a  predominance  of  thought.  In  her  productions  she 
shows  herself  so  possessed  with  the  thought  that  its  expres- 
sion is  sometimes  faulty ;  yet  the  defects  of  her  poetry  are 
rather  in  its  form  than  in  its  spirit  and  thought. 

Her  writings  are  subjective  in  the  sense  that  they  reveal 
herself  in  her  inner  being.  They  manifest  a  masculine  vigor 
of  thought  and  style,  with  a  feminine  depth  and  refinement 
of  feeling.  They  make  an  impression  of  the  personality  of 
the  writer  as  transcending  its  manifestation. 

Mrs.  Browning  was  intellectual,  but  not  sceptical,  and  her 
writings  are  pervaded  with  the  faith  and  hope  of  a  spirit 
deeply  religious.  With  a  mind  richly  stored  with  the  treas- 
ures of  the  past,  she  showed  a  hearty  sympathy  with  the 
progressive  spirit  of  the  present.  Despite  physical  weakness, 
her  mind  made  her  one  of  the  greatest  of  her  sex. 


338      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Poetical  Works  (N.  Y.),  5  vols. 

Life,  Letters,  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1877),  3  vols. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  266. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  346.  (**  She  combined  in  an  extraordinary 
degree  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  masculine  un- 
derstanding and  the  feminine  heart.") 

Bayne's  Essays  in  Biog.  and  Crit.,  1st  S.,  p.  146.  ("  Our  single 
Shakespearian  woman.") 

Eminent  Women  of  the  Age,  p.  221. 

Encyc.  Brit,  4.  391.  ("  The  most  distinguished  poet  of  her  sex 
that  England  has  produced."  "  Sensibility  and  intuition 
were  in  her  united  in  a  degree  seldom  witnessed.") 

Mar.  Fuller's  Lit.  and  Art  (N.  Y.,  1852),  Pt.  2,  p.  22. 

Gilfillan's  Lit.  Men  (N.  Y.,  1860),  p.  239. 

Mrs.  Kale's  Biog.  of  Distinguished  Women,  p.  605. 

Ingram's  Mrs.  Browning  (Famous  Women  S.). 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  544,  545. 

Maude  G.  Phillips's  Pop.  Man  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1885),  2.  445. 

Smiles's  Brief  Biographies  (Philad.),  p.  449. 

Stedman's  Victorian  Poets,  Chap.  4.  Same,  Scrib.  Mo.,  7.  101. 
("  I  therefore  regard  Mrs.  Browning  as  the  representative 
of  her  sex  in  the  Victorian  era.") 

Taine's  Notes  on  Eng.  (N.  Y.),  Chap.  33,  pp.  344-346.  (Aurora 
Leigh.  "  An  extraordinary  work,  which  is  also  a  master- 
piece.") 

Whipple's  Essays  and  Reviews,  1.  361-363. 

Atlan.,  8.  368. 

Blackw.,  56.  621  ;  81.  23. 

Brit.  Q.,  2.  337;  34.  350;  42.  359.  ("No  woman  has  ever 
united  abilities  like  those  of  Mrs.  Browning.") 

Chr.  Exam.,  38.  206-207 ;  72.  65.  ("  Mrs.  Browning  united 
loftiness  of  thought  to  intensity  of  emotion."  "Mrs. 
Browning's  moral  strength  equalled  her  intellectual.") 

Eel.  M.,  54.  55  ;  55.  303;  56.  74,  351. 

Ed.  R.,  114.  513  (Am.  ed.,  p.  263). 

Fraser,  43.  178. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  16.  153.  ("As  a  religious  poet  she  united  the 
fervor  of  Taylor  with  the  devotion  of  Herbert.") 

Liv.  Age,  180.  629  ;  181.  643. 

Meth.  Q.,  6.  54 ;  22.  409. 

Nation,  48.  7. 

Nat.  Q.,  1.  173  ;  5.  134. 

Nat.  R.,  4.  239. 

No.  Am  ,  85.  415  ;  94.  338.     ("  She  is  the  queen  of  poets.") 


LITER  A  TURE.  339 

No.  Brit.,  26.  443. 

Putnam,  9.  28. 

Ouar.,  66.  383-389  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  203-206). 

Westm.,  42.  381  (Am.  ed.,  p.  197)  ;  67.  306  (Am.  ed.,  p.  158). 

Westm.,  68.  399  (Am.  ed.,  p.  220).    Same,  Eel.  M.,  43.  10. 

Westm.,  118.  373  (Am.  ed.,  p.  180.)  Same,  Liv.  Age,  155.  416. 
("The  vigor  of  her  style  and  the  range  of  her  views  are 
masculine  enough  ;  it  is  only  in  the  depth  of  her  tenderness 
and  the  passion  of  her  sympathy  that  her  womanhood  is 
revealed.") 


BALZAC  AND   HUGO. 
1 86.   Js  Balzac  a  greater  novelist  than  Hugo? 

Balzac  and  Hugo  each  exhibits  in  his  writings  a  mind  of 
large  compass,  of  intense  activity,  and  of  firm  grasp. 

Balzac  laid  a  large  plan,  of  which  he  executed  a  consider- 
able part ;  Hugo's  work  was  more  varied,  but  all  partook  of 
the  grandeur  of  his  mind.  Balzac,  with  an  ideal  ele'ment,  is 
more  realistic  ;  Hugo,  in  his  own  way,  is  idealistic.  Balzac's 
writings  are  more  objective,  while  Hugo  manifests  more  of 
his  own  personality. 

Each  in  the  character  of  his  genius  is  distinct  and  strong ; 
each  has  his  own  excellences  and  his  own  defects. 

BALZAC. 

Balzac's  genius,  as  disclosed  by  his  work,  may  be  con- 
sidered in  respect  to  its  range  and  its  quality. 

With  a  consciousness  of  his  natural  powers,  he  developed 
them  by  intense  and  protracted  toil.  He  undertook  in  his 
novels  the  mighty  task  of  portraying  human  character  and 
life  in  its  manifold  phases,  as  he  might  himself  study  it  in 
his  own  age  and  country,  especially  in  the  development  and 
exhibition  of  passion.  In  the  dissection  of  the  human  heart 
he  has  shown  himself  a  master.  He  aimed  to  make  his  work 
as  wide  and  as  deep  as  human  nature ;  and  in  this  his  suc- 
cess, if  not  complete,  was  extraordinary.  Yet  to  evil  he  gives 


340      REFERENCES  FOR,  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

the  preponderance ;  and  his  success  in  depicting  the  evil  in 
human  nature  is  greater  than  in  depicting  the  good. 

To  the  requirements  of  art  he  was  scrupulously  faithful ; 
and  the  ethical  found  place  in  his  work  only  as  the  real  in 
art,  or  as  it  appears  in  life. 

Balzac's  work  is  that  of  a  genius  large,  strong,  and 
intense. 

Novels  trans.,  esp.  Pere  Goriot  and  Eugenie  Grandet. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  258.  ("  He  aimed  only  to  present  the  realities 
of  life.  He  advances  no  theory,  pretends  to  no  moral 
teaching.") 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  1.  695.  ("  But  few  writers  give  such 
an  impression  of  intellectual  force,  and  in  the  power  of  in- 
vesting his  creations  with  apparent  reality  he  stands  first 
among  novelists.") 

Encyc.  Brit.,  3.  304;  9.  679. 

James's  French  Poets  and  Novelists,  p.  84.  ("  Our  last  word 
about  him  is  that  he  had  incomparable  power.") 

Saintsbury's  Short  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  p.  530. 

Saltus's  Balzac  (Bost,  1884). 

Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library,  p.  238.  Same,  Fortn.,  15.  17. 
Same,  Liv.  Age,  108.  515. 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  292-293. 

Van  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  3.  389.  ("  The  anatomist  of 
passion,  the  vivisector  of  the  human  heart.'') 

Allan..  53.  850-853  ;  54.  717;  57.  834. 

Blackw.,  121.  300. 

Contemp.,  37.  1004.  ("  Balzac's  place  among  the  classics  of 
France  is  securely  established  as  the  greatest  master  of 
romantic  fiction  his  country  has  produced  ;  and  his  suprem- 
acy is  not  merely  French,  but  European.") 

Dub.  Univ.  M.,  64.  620  (The  Style  of  Balzac  and  Thackeray). 
Same,  Eel.  M.,  64.  229.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  84.  51. 

Eel.  M.,  78.  738. 

Ed.  R.,  148.  528  (Am.  ed.,  p.  273). 

Hours  at  Home,  5.  249. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  15.  89  ;  16.  384  ;  17.  144. 

Nation,  40.  114. 

Westm.,  60.  199  (Am.  ed.,  p.  105). 


LITER  A  TURE.  3  4 1 

HUGO. 

Hugo,  though  a  politician,  has  been  chiefly  known  as  a 
writer.  In  literature  he  is  more  widely  and  familiarly 
known  as  a  novelist,  though  by  the  critics  he  is  ranked 
high  as  a  poet.  His  novels  have  met  with  a  wide  recep- 
tion, and  have  given  him  a  reputation  coextensive  with 
the  civilized  world.  His  genius  is  universally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  great,  but  its  peculiarities  make  it  liable 
to  criticism. 

Hugo  has  a  large  nature,  and  especially  delights  in  the 
grand  and  impressive.  He  is  regarded  as  the  great  master 
of  romanticism  in  literature,  in  its  opposition  to  classicism. 
His  style  is  diffuse,  dramatic,  pictorial,  intense.  His  genius 
is  seen  in  his  novels  as  large,  various,  and  powerful. 

Novels,  trans.,  esp.  Les  Miserables  and  Ninety-Three. 

Victor  Hugo,  by  Madame  Hugo,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1864). 

Amiel's  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.,  1889),  p.  90. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  35. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1885,  p.  479. 

Barbou's  Victor  Hugo  and  his  Times,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1882). 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1890),  5.  822. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  2.  1020. 

Swinburne:   I.  Victor  Hugo. 

2.  Essays  and  Studies,  p.  i.     Same,  Fortn.,  12.  73. 

Atlan.,  36.  171-174. 

Blackw.,  92.  172  ;  115.  750.  ("The  name  of  M.  Victor  Hugo 
is  one  of  the  very  few  which  attract  universal  attention  in  the 
world  of  literature.") 

Blackw.,  122.  157.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  89.  399. 

Brit.  Q.,  67.  355-379  5  77.  90-95. 

Chr.  Exam.,  76.  323-325. 

Contemp.,  48.  10.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  166.  323. 

Cornh  ,  6.  704. 

Critic,  6.  253,  260,  308;  7.  80.  ("Victor  Hugo  was  a  very 
great  man  ;  he  was,  especially,  a  man  wholly  out  of  the  com- 
mon, —  truly  unique."  Renan.) 

Dial  (Chicago),  6.  33. 

Eel.  M.,  58.  195  ;  67.  77  ;  80.  324. 

Ed.  R.,  107.  208  (Am.  ed.,  p.  108)  ;  163.  141-151,  163-164. 
("  His  originality  is  irresistible.  The  fire  of  his  descriptions, 


342      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

the  glow  of  his  imagination,  the  blaze  of  his  poetic  passion, 
kindle  an  enthusiasm  such  as  no  other  writer  can  create.") 

Fortn.,  5.  30  ;  21.  359.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  82.  624. 

Nation,  9.  509  ;  18.  238. 

New  Eng.,  23.  454. 

N.  Princ.,  3.  212. 

No.  Am.,  81.  33-34. 

Quar.,  112.  271  (Am.  ed.,  p.  145). 

Westm.,  79.  77  (Am.  ed.,  p.  42). 


MONTAIGNE  AND   ADDISON. 
187.   Is  Montaigne  a  better  essayist  than  Addison? 

Montaigne  and  Addison  display  in  their  essays  the  dis- 
tinctive charm  of  their  own  personality. 

Montaigne  discourses  freely  of  himself,  while  Addison  im- 
presses upon  his  writings  the  kindliness  and  gentleness  of 
a  pure  and  elevated  spirit.  Montaigne  writes  from  the  im- 
pressions of  his  own  mind,  while  Addison  has  a  more 
definite  practical  aim.  Montaigne  is  more  philosophic,  but 
Addison  has  more  positive  convictions. 

Addison  was  more  Christian  in  spirit,  with  a  faith  serene 
and  steadfast;  Montaigne  was  more  worldly,  with  some- 
thing of  the  sceptical  indifference  and  levity  of  the  worldly 
spirit.  Montaigne's  influence  has  been  wider,  Addison's 
more  elevating. 

MONTAIGNE. 

From  the  genius  of  Montaigne  the  essay,  as  a  distinct 
form  of  literature,  received  at  once  its  origin  and  its  per- 
fection. It  is  certain  that  from  no  subsequent  writer  has 
it  met  with  a  larger  success.  This  is  due  to  the  peculiar 
genius  of  Montaigne,  who,  to  an  uncommon  extent,  put 
himself,  with  all  that  he  was  and  did,  into  his  writings. 

He  is  original,  and  represents  a  distinct  type  and  ten- 
dency in  literature  and  in  philosophy.  He  combines 
opposite  characteristics,  becoming  thus  somewhat  of  a 
puzzle. 


LITER  A  TURE. 


343 


That  his  writings  have  substantial  merits  would  seem  in- 
dubitable from  the  fact  of  their  general  and  permanent  re- 
ception. They  are  both  humorous  and  ethical.  They  are 
light,  gay,  gossipy,  yet  philosophical  and  pregnant  with 
lessons  of  practical  wisdom.  The  philosophy,  it  is  true, 
is  not  the  highest.  It  inclines  to  the  sceptical,  such  as  is 
rather  indeterminate  than  a  denying.  Montaigne's  mind 
was  not  the  seat  of  positive  convictions.  The  essays,  which 
show  so  well  the  character  and  range  of  his  mind,  are  sug- 
gestive, stimulating,  and  entertaining. 

Works,  trans.,  new  ed.  rev.  (Bost.  and  N.  Y.),  4  vols. 

Addison's  Spectator,  No.  562. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11.  769.  ("His  sagacious  treatment  of  every- 
day life,  rich  and  vigorous  language,  easy  and  indulgent 
gayety,  genial  egotism,  and  minute  confessions,  are  among 
the  charms  of  his  work.") 

Baldwin's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Eng.  Lit.  (Philad.,  1883),  V.  2, 
Prose,  Chap.  10,  pp.  293-294. 

Bayle  Saint  John's  Montaigne  the  Essayist  (Lond.,  1857). 

Besant's  French  Humorists,  Chap.  6.  ("  Montaigne's  Essays 
owe  their  greatest  charm  to  the  fact  that  they  reveal  not 
only  the  secrets  of  a  soul,  but  of  a  soul  not  much  raised 
above  the  commonplace,  and  like  our  own."  "  Like  ours, 
and  yet  superior.  His  mind  differed  in  degree  from  ours, 
not  in  kind;  larger,  broader,  keener.") 

Bridge's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.  (Philad.,  1874),  pp.  111-114. 

Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization  (N.  Y.,  1863),  1.  373-375. 

Collins's  Montaigne  (For.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

Emerson's  Representative  Men,  Prose  Writings.  2.  79. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  15.  506.  ("To  disclose  himself,  accord- 
ingly, in  all  phases  of  his  nature,  whether  of  strength  or 
weakness,  nobility  or  meanness,  beauty  or  deformity,  wis- 
dom or  folly,  he  made  the  business  of  his  calm  and  medita- 
tive life.") 

Encyc.  Brit,  9th  ed.,  16.  767.  ("  Montaigne  is  one  of  the  few 
great  writers  who  have  not  only  perfected,  but  have  also 
invented  a  literary  form."  Saintsbury.) 

Fischer's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  Descartes  and  his  School, 
trans.  (N.  Y.,  1887),  PP-  118-120. 

Hallam's  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  301- 
303- 


344      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Saintsbury's  Short  Hist  of  Fr.  Lit,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  7. 

Mrs.  Shelley's  Eminent  Fr.  Writers  (Philad.,  1840),  1.  25. 

Van  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit,  V.  I,  bk.  3,  Chap.  3,  sec.    I. 

Wilkinson's  Classical  Fr.  Course  in  English,  Chap.  4. 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  4.  461. 

Fraser,  34.  261.  Same,  Eel.  M.,  9.  248.  Same,  Liv.  Age, 
11.  85. 

New  Eng.,  34.  405. 

No.  Am.,  87.  356. 

Quar.,  99.  396  (Am.  ed  ,  p.  217).  Same,  Liv.  Age,  52.  65. 
("The  Essays  have  a  breadth  and  depth  which  criticism  is 
not  yet  weary  of  measuring  and  remeasuring."  "  There 
are  some  books  which  partake  of  the  inexhaustible  multi- 
formity of  our  moral  nature,  and  the  Essays  is  one  of  such 
books.") 

Retros.,  2.  207. 

St  Paul's,  8.  352.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  110.  414. 

Westm.,  29.  321  (Am.  ed.,  p.  174),  ("  He  was  unquestionably 
a  large-minded,  clear,  and  healthy  man")  ;  104,  414  (Am. 
ed.,  p.  200). 

ADDISON. 

Addison,  though  a  poet,  reached  in  his  Essays  the  height 
of  his  performance.  He  is  the  best  English  essayist,  and  his 
Essays  occupy  a  high  and  permanent  place  in  English  litera- 
ture. They  reflect,  in  their  subjects,  style,  and  spirit,  the 
best  characteristics  of  their  author. 

Appearing  at  first  periodically,  they  were  intended,  by 
the  satirizing  of  vice  and  folly,  to  aid  in  the  promotion  of 
virtue.  They  have  an  elevated  moral  spirit,  aim,  and 
influence. 

Addison  was  a  humorist ;  but  his  humor,  like  his  spirit, 
was  not  sharp,  but  gentle.  With  a  kindly  spirit,  he  en- 
kindles kindly  feelings  and  wins  love.  His  virtues  are  of 
the  mild  and  not  of  the  heroic  sort.  Yet  virtues  they  are, 
of  a  positive  kind,  such  as  shine  with  a  transparent  bright- 
ness, and  exercise  a  transforming  influence. 

His  style,  for  clearness,  purity,  and  elegance,  is  justly 
celebrated  as  a  model. 

Works  (Philad.),  6  vols. 
Lucy  Aiken's  Life  of. 


LITER  A  TURE. 


345 


Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  37. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  1.  112. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  170-176,  180-181.  ("  Addi- 
son  occupies  in  English  literature  a  place  only  second  to 
that  of  its  great  masters.") 

Chamb.  Cyc.  ot  Eng.  Lit.,  Fifth  Period,  Essayists. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1888),  1.  50.  (kt  As  a  light  essayist  he 
has  no  equal,  and  scarcely  a  second,  in  English  literature." 
"  The  noble  monument  of  his  success  is  the  Spectator, 
a  paper  in  which  the  foundations  of  all  that  is  sound  and 
healthy  in  modern  English  thought  may  readily  be  traced.") 

Courthope's  Addison  (Eng.  Men.  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  5,  9. 
("  Addison  may  be  said  to  have  almost  created,  and  wholly 
perfected,  English  prose  as  an  instrument  for  the  expression 
of  social  thought.1') 

Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  2.  132.  Same,  9th  ed.,  1.  146.  ('•  Indeed, 
it  may  safely  be  said  that  no  one,  in  any  age  of  our  litera- 
ture, has  united  so  strikingly  as  he  did  the  colloquial  grace 
and  ease  which  mark  the  style  of  an  accomplished  gentle- 
man, with  the  power  of  soaring  into  a  strain  of  expression 
nobly  and  elegantly  dignified.") 

Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets.  ("As  a  describer  of  life  and 
manners,  he  must  be  allowed  to  stand  perhaps  the  first  of 
the  first  rank."  "  As  a  teacher  of  wisdom  he  may  be  con- 
fidently followed."  "  Whoever  wishes  to  attain  an  English 
style,  familiar,  but  not  coarse,  and  elegant,  but  not  ostenta- 
tious, must  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  volumes  of 
Addison.") 

Macaulay's  Essays,  5.  321.  Same,  Ed.  R.,  78.  193  (Am.  ed., 
p.  102).  ('*  His  best  essays  approach  near  to  absolute  per- 
fection, nor  is  their  excellence  more  wonderful  than  their 
variety."  "  Of  the  service  which  his  essays  rendered  to 
morality  it  is  difficult  to  speak  too  highly.") 

Perry's  Eng.  Lit.  in  the  Eighteenth  Cent.,  Chap.  4. 

Maude  G.  Phillips's  Pop.  Man.  of  Eng.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1885), 
1.  499- 

Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  4. 

Thackeray's  Eng.  Humorists,  Lect  2. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  80- 

Fraser,  28.  318. 

No.  Am.,  64.  314;  79.  90. 

Temple  Bar,  41.  319.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  83.  362. 


346      REFERENCES  FOR  -LITERARY   WORKERS. 


CARLYLE  AND  EMERSON. 

1 88.   As  a  thinker  and  writer  should  Carlyle  outrank 
Emersoji  ? 

Of  thinkers  who  have  put  into  an  attractive  literary  form 
a  certain  spiritual  phase  of  modern  thought,  Carlyle  and 
Emerson,  by  their  genius  and  influence,  stand  among  the 
first.  Each,  with  a  consciousness  of  his  own  powers,  gave 
himself  to  thought  and  writing  as  his  life-work.  Both  were 
possessed  of  intellectual  independence  ;  and  each  made  an 
original,  unique,  and  important  contribution  to  the  literature 
of  thought. 

Both  had  a  certain  spiritual  insight  and  intellectual 
intensity;  but  Carlyle  had  the  more  force  and  Emerson 
the  greater  serenity.  Carlyle  was  more  disturbed  by  evil ; 
Emerson  had  more  faith  in  good. 

The  writings  of  both,  though  tinctured  with  a  spiritual 
pantheism,  have  exercised  a  profound,  stimulating,  and 
elevating  influence. 

CARLYLE. 

Carlyle  appeared  in  English  literature  as  a  new  and 
original  force.  A  critic,  biographer,  and  historian,  a  phi- 
losopher, satirist,  and  moralist,  he  drew  and  fixed  attention 
by  the  freshness  and  originality  of  his  thought,  by  the  vehe- 
mence of  his  utterance,  and  by  the  peculiarity  of  his  style. 
To  a  mind  independent,  keen,  positive,  and  intense,  he 
united  a  literary  instinct  and  a  critical  judgment,  together 
with  a  practical  moral  aim,  and  an  absorbing  sense  of  the 
spiritual  and  of  the  infinite. 

Some  of  his  chief  natural  characteristics  were  insight, 
force,  and  intensity;  and  these  were  reinforced  by  up- 
rightness and  moral  earnestness.  The  fierce  doubt  with 
which  he  early  grappled,  he  never  quite  overcame.  The 
positive  faith  to  which  he  attained  was  not  of  a  kind  or 
degree  to  give  him  peace.  The  evil  of  the  time  oppressed 
him,  and  hid  the  good.  Power,  and  not  love,  he  made 


LITERATURE.  347 

supreme.  With  a  profound  seriousness  he  united  a  grim 
humor  which  tended  to  cynicism.  His  influence  on  con- 
temporary thought  was  deep  and  pervasive,  and  doubtless 
on  the  whole  spiritual  and  elevating. 

Works,  esp.  Sartor  Resartus  and  Essays. 

First  Forty  Years  of  the  Life  of;  and  Life  in  London,  ed.  by 

Froude,  4  vols. 

Corresp.  between  Carlyle  and  Emerson,  ed.  by  Norton. 
Corresp.  between  Carlyle  and  Goethe,  ed.  by  Norton. 
Alcott's  Concord  Days,  p.  160. 
Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  342. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  796. 
Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1881,  p.  89. 

Baldwin's  Introd.  to  Eng.  Lit.  (Philad.),  V.  2,  Prose,  p.  328. 
Bayne's  Lessons  from  My  Masters,  p.  n. 
Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Eng.  Authors,  p.  195. 
Burroughs's  Indoor  Studies,  p.  128  (Arnold's  view  of  Emerson 

and  Carlyle).     Same,  Cent.,  5.  925. 
Calvert's  Essays  ^Esthetical,  p.  198. 
Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1888),  2.  772. 
Conway's  Thos.  Carlyle. 
Craik's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  561. 

Emerson  :  i.  Works,  Riverside  ed.,  10.  455.  Same,  Tributes 
to  Longfellow  and  Emerson,  by  the  Mass. 
Hist.  Soc.,  p.  51. 

2.  Eng.  Traits,  Chap.  14,  Prose  Works,  2.  280. 
Foster's  Four  Great  Teachers. 
Giles's  Lectures  and  Essays,  2.  286. 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  1.  780. 
Lowell's  My  Study  Windows,  p.  115.     Same,  No.  Am.,  102. 

419. 
Martineau's   Essays,   Philosophical  and   Theological   (Bost.), 

1.  386.     Same,  Nat.  R.,  3.  483. 
Masson's  Carlyle  Personally  and  in  his  Writings.     Same,  in 

part,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  28.  224. 
Mead's  Philos.  of  Carlyle  (Bost.,  1881). 
Minto's  Man.  of  Eng.  Prose  Lit.,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  3. 
Morley :  i.  First  Sketch  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  1013-1025. 

2.  Eng.  Lit.  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria,  Chap.  10. 
Shairp's  Aspects  of  Poetry,  Chap.  14. 
Smiles's  Brief  Biographies  (Philad.).  p.  270. 
Taine's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Bk.  -,  Chap.  4. 


348       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Thoreau's  Yankee  in  Canada,  etc.,  p.  211. 

Tulloch's  Rel.  Thought  in  Eng.  during  the  iQth  Cent.,  Lect.  5. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  455  ;  also  p.  537. 

Whipple's  Essays  and  Reviews,  2.  387. 

Wy lie's  Carlyle. 

And.  R.,  3.  227. 

Allan.,  1.  185  ;  50.  127;  51.  329-330,  560. 

Blackw.,  85.  127. 

Brit  Q.,  81.  143. 

Chr.  Exam.,  77.  206. 

Cent,  4.  530. 

Contemp.,  39.  584.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  149.  361. 

Contemp.,  39.  792;  60.  521  (Lecky). 

Cornh.,  44.  664.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  152.  67. 

Dial  (Chicago),  1.  225. 

Fortn.,  14.  I. 

Fraser,  72.  738.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  88.  737. 

Harper,  48.  726;  62.  888. 

Liv.  Age,  148.  692. 

Macmil.,  47.  200.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  156.  438. 

Meth.  Q.,  9.  119,  217. 

Nation,  32.  109. 

New  Eng.,  8.  46  ;  40.  396. 

New  York  R.,  4.  179. 

No.  Am.,  41. 454 ;  136. 431  (Emerson  and  Carlyle,  by  Whipple) 

Putnam,  13.  519. 

Quar.,  66.  446  (Am.  ed.,  p.  233). 

Quar.,  132.  335  (Am  ed.,  p.  178).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  113.  666. 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  79.  129. 
Westm.,  33.  i ;  115.  457  (Am.  ed.,  p.  219). 

EMERSON. 

Emerson  lived  for  thought.  He  deliberately  chose  the 
contemplative  rather  than  an  active  life,  and  found  in  it 
much  fruit.  In  the  temper  of  his  mind  he  was  ideal,  look- 
ing at  things  on  their  spiritual  side ;  yet  with  a  mystical 
tendency  he  combined  a  practical  sagacity. 

He  was  intuitive,  not  logical;  he  saw  and  announced. 
Hence  his  writings,  though  a  marvel  of  condensed  thought, 
lack  continuity,  unity,  order,  and  consistency.  Philosophic, 
he  was  neither  abstract  nor  systematic.  Poetic,  his  poetry 
is  as  much  freighted  with  thought  as  his  prose. 


LITERATURE.  349 

His  intellect  was  regnant,  giving  to  his  mind  serenity, 
and  placidity  to  his  emotions.  He  was  self-reliant,  loyal  to 
his  own  thought,  and  in  its  expression  independent  and 
bold.  He  was  an  optimist,  with  a  firm  faith  in  good,  and 
making  little  account  of  evil.  His  influence  on  the  minds 
he  attracts  is  in  a  high  degree  stimulating. 

Complete  Works,  Riverside  ed.  (Bost.),  n  vols. 

Cabot's  Memoir  of,  2  vols. 

Emerson  in  Concord:    a  Memoir  by  E.  W.  Emerson  (Bost., 
1890). 

Aicott's  Concord  Days,  p.  25. 

Allen's   Our   Liberal   Movement   in   Theology,    App.,  p.    211 
(Hedge's  Mem.  Address). 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  557. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  6.  568. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1882,  p.  277. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  343. 

Birrell's  Obiter  Dicta,  2d  S.,  Chap.  7. 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Am.  Authors,  p.  I. 

Burroughs:   I.  Birds  and  Poets,  p.  185. 

2.  Indoor  Studies,  p.  128  (Arnold's  View  of  Emer- 
son and  Carlyle).     Same,  Cent.,  5.  925. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  4.  323. 

Cooke's  Lite,  Writings,  and  Philosophy  of. 

Convvay's  Emerson  at  Home  and  Abroad  (Cost.,  1882). 

Corresp.  of  Carlyle  and  Emerson,  ed.  by  Norton. 

The  First  Century  of  the  Republic,  pp.  368-371.    Same,  Harper. 
52.  417-419  (Whipple). 

Foster's  Four  Great  Teachers. 

Frothingham's  Transcendentalism  in  New  Eng.,  Chap.  9. 

Mar.  Fuller's  Life  Without  and  Within,  p.  191. 

The  Genius  and  Character  of  Emerson.    Lectures  at  the  Con- 
cord School  of  Philos.,  ed.  by  Sanborn  (Bost.,  1885). 

Gilfillan's  Lit.  Men  (N.  Y.,  1860),  p.  158. 

Godwin's  Out  of  the  Past,  p.  441.     Same,  Putnam,  8.  407. 

Guernsey's  Emerson. 

Holmes's  Emerson  (Am.  Men  of  Letters). 

Ireland's  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (Lond.,  1882). 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit.,  V.  I,  Chap.  9;  V.  2,  Chap.  5. 

Stedman's  Poets  of  Am.,  Chap.  5. 

Tributes  to  Longfellow  and  Emerson,  by  the  Mass.  Hist.  Soc 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  523. 


350    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Woodbury's  Talks  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Atlan.,  7.  254  (Lowell)  ;  50.  238  ;  51.  560 ;  55.  416-417. 

Blackw.,  62.  643.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  16.  97. 

Brit.  Q.,  11.  218.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  26.  I. 

Cent,  4.  265  (James). 

Chr.  Exam.,  30.  253;  38.  87  ;  42.  255-262;  48.  314;  84.  257- 

269. 

Chr.  R.,  26.  640. 
Dial  (Chicago),  2.  114. 
Fortn.,  40.  422.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  158.  771.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

101.  577- 

Eraser,  75.  586.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  98.  358. 
Harper,  65.  288  (J.  Hawthorne) ;  65.  576  (Whipple). 
Internal.  R.,  3.  249.     Lit.  W.  (Bost),  11.  174-185;  13.   144; 

14.  446. 
Liv.  Age,  4.  139  ;  23.  344  ;  24.  457  ;  68.  240;  105.  161  ;  153. 

567. 

Meth.  Q.,  34.  357. 
Nation,  4.  430  ;  33.  396. 
New  Eng.,  8.  186-189;  19.  496;  45.  633. 
No.  Am.,  70.   520;    130.  470;   135.1  (Whipple);   136.  421 

(and  Carlyle,  by  Whipple);  14O.  129  (Bancroft). 
No.  Brit,  37.  319. 
Overland,  N.  s.,  4.  434. 
Westm.,  33.  345  ;  119.  451. 
Unita.  R.,  35.  127  (Optimism  of). 

HAWTHORNE   AND    IRVING. 

1 89.   Should  Hawthorne  be  ranked  higher  among  American 
authors  than  Irving  ? 

The  genius  of  Hawthorne  and  the  genius  of  Irving  are 
essentially  unlike.  Each  had  an  excellence  of  his  own  ; 
and  this  being  in  each  case  determined,  it  may  then  be 
considered  which  is  the  superior. 

Hawthorne  is  the  more  original,  Irving  the  more  popular. 
Hawthorne  has  more  depth  and  spiritual  insight,  Irving 
more  humor  and  hearty  sympathy.  Hawthorne  is  more 
subjective  and  psychological,  Irving  more  objective  and 
natural.  Hawthorne's  writings  excite  an  interest  deep, 
strong,  and  intense ;  Irving's  writings  impart  a  pleasure 
serene  and  satisfying. 


LITERATURE.  351 

HAWTHORNE. 

Hawthorne's  romances  are  the  production  and  revelation 
of  his  inmost  life.  His  was  a  secluded  spirit,  that  lived  in 
itself.  He  carried  in  himself  an  ideal  world,  of  which  his 
writings  give  us  glimpses.  The  history  of  literature  does 
not  furnish  a  genius  more  original.  With  a  brooding  mind, 
he  was  silent,  absorbed  in  the  birth  and  growth  of  his  own 
thoughts  and  fancies. 

His  productions  stand  distinctly  by  themselves,  less  be- 
cause they  are  above  than  because  they  are  aside  and  dif- 
ferent from  others.  Yet  in  all  respects  —  in  conception  and 
execution,  in  style  and  finish  —  they  possess  a  high  degree 
of  excellence.  They  have  strength  and  weight,  fineness 
and  delicacy,  purity  and  elevation.  His  spirit,  not  light 
and  gladsome,  is  on  the  whole  sombre,  yet  not  morbid. 
He  is  properly  an  idealist,  though  not  an  optimist.  The 
purity  and  simplicity  of  their  style  make  his  writings  classic. 

Complete  Works,  Riverside  ed.  (Bost.),  13  vols. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  his  Wife,  by  Julian  Hawthorne. 

Alcott's  Concord  Days,  p.  193. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors  1.  804. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  8.  535. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  124  (G.  W.  Curtis). 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Am.  Authors,  p.  104. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1890),  5.  594. 

Conway's  Hawthorne. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  1.  126-127.  ("Of  his  style  it  is  impossible  to 
speak  too  highly.  It  is  accurate  and  strong,  terse  and  yet 
full,  rich  and  yet  simple,  harmonious,  varied,  and  suggest- 
ive.") 

Encyc.  Brit,  11.  536.  ("  The  writings  of  Hawthorne  are 
marked  by  subtle  imagination,  curious  powers  of  analysis, 
and  exquisite  purity  of  diction."  Stoddard.) 

Fields's  Yesterdays  with  Authors,  Chap.  3. 

Button's  Essays  in  Lit.  Crit.  (Philad.),  Chap.  2.  Same,  Nat.  R., 
11.  453.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  68.  217. 

James's  Hawthorne  (Eng.  Men.  of  Letters  S.).  ("  He  com- 
bined in  a  singular  degree  the  spontaneity  of  the  imagina- 
tion with  a  haunting  care  for  moral  problems.") 


352     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Lathrop's  Study  of  Hawthorne,  esp.  Chap.  12,  which  compares 

him  with  Irving. 

Longfellow's  Driftwood,  Prose  Writings  (Bost.,  1882),  V.  i  ; 
(Bost,  1888),  Riverside  ed.}  1.  360.  Same,  No.  Am., 
45.  59, 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit.,  V.  2,  Chap.  10. 
Smiles's  Brief  Biographies,  p.  256. 
Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library,  p.  204.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  116. 

195. 

B.  Taylor's  Crit.  Essays  and  Lit.  Notes,  p.  354.     ("  He  is  at 
once  the  rarest  and  purest  growth  oi  the  intellectual  and 
social  soil  from  which  he  sprang/') 
Tuckerman's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  p.  309. 
Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit.,  2.  502. 
Whipple  :   I.  Character  and  Characteristic  Men,  p.  218.    Same, 
Atlan.,  5.  614.     ("Hawthorne  not  only  writes 
English,  but  the  sweetest,  simplest,  and  clearest 
English  that  ever  has  been  made  the  vehicle  of 
equal  depth,  variety,  and  subtlety  of  thought 
and  emotion.") 
2.  The  First  Century  of  the  Republic,  pp.  391-393. 

Same,  Harper,  52.  527-528. 
And.  R.,  7.  31. 
Apple  ton,  4.  405. 
Atlan.,  22.  359;  57.  471. 

Blackw.,  94.  610.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  80.  15  (in  part). 
Cent.,  3.  433  ;  10.  83. 
Chr.  Exam.,  25.  182;  78.  89. 
Critic,  9.  177. 
Ed.  R.,  173.  47-51. 
Form.,  46.  511. 
Harper,  45.  683. 

Independent,  1889,  Sept.  26.  p.  5.  ("  There  are  geniuses  more 
sunny,  large,  and  glad  than  Hawthorne's,  but  none  more 
original,  more  surefooted  in  his  own  clear  realm  of  moon- 
light." Lang.) 

Liv.  Age,  25.  203  ;  65.  707;  81.  518. 
Meth.  Q.,  26.  51. 
Nation,  30.  89  ;  39.  525. 
New  Eng.,  5.  56;  18.  441  ;  19-'  860  ;  44.  403. 
No.  Am.,  71.  135  ;  76.  227;  129.  203  (Trollope). 
No.  Brit..  33.  iSo:  49.  173.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  99.  67, 
St.  Paul's,  8.  151.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  174. 
Westm.,  50.  592  (Am.  ed.,  p.  318). 


LITERATURE.  353 

IRVING. 

Irving  was  by  nature  admirably  fitted  for  a  literary 
career.  His  writings  show  the  man,  with  his  characteristic 
excellences  and  limitations.  His  style  is  the  man,  simple, 
unaffected,  easy,  graceful,  and  pure. 

The  obvious  merit  of  his  writings  won  for  them  an 
appreciation  quick,  general,  and  permanent.  He  was  the 
first  who  raised  American  literature  to  a  height  at  which  it 
might  find  rank  with  that  of  other  nations.  His  genius  was 
rather  cosmopolitan  than  national ;  and  though  an  Ameri- 
can in  heart  as  well  as  by  birth,  he  was  not  less  a  man  in 
hearty  sympathy  with  all  men.  It  is  this  spirit  pervading 
his  writings  which  has  given  them  a  wide,  warm,  and  lasting 
appreciation.  There  is  in  his  writings  a  spirit  larger  than 
art  and  higher  than  genius,  which  wins  not  so  much  admi- 
ration as  love,  such  as  the  author  in  his  own  person  would 
win.  It  is  his  own  simple  spirit  of  truth  and  of  love,  ani- 
mating a  fit  and  characteristic  literary  form. 

Complete  Works  (N.  Y.),  27  vols.,  esp.  The  Sketch  Book. 

P.  M.  Irving's  Life  and  Letters  of.  See  Index,  titles  of  books 
respectively. 

Allibone's  Diet  of  Authors,  1.  935. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  419.  ("In  the  department  of  pure  literature 
he  was  the  earliest  classic  writer  of  America,  and  in  the 
opinion  of  many  he  remains  the  first.") 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  3.  360.  ("We  may  safely,  however,  count 
him  the  best  beloved  among  American  authors  ;  his  charac- 
ter was  so  clean,  his  language  was  so  full  of  grace,  his  sym- 
pathies so  true  and  wide,  and  his  humor  so  genuine  and 
abounding.") 

Mrs.  Bolton's  Famous  Am.  Authors,  p.  58. 

Bryant's  Prose  Writings  (N.  Y.,  1884),  1.  332. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (1890),  6.  227. 

R.  H.  Dana's  Poems  and  Prose  Writings  (N.  Y.,  1850),  2.  268. 
Same,  No.  Am.,  9.  322. 

Duyckinck's  Cyc.  of  Am.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  2.  47. 

Encyc.  Brit,  1.  724-725  ;  13.  372.     ("  Irving's  productions  are 
in  general  impressed  with  that  signet  of  classical  finish 
which  guarantees  the  perminency  of  literary  work  more 
surely  than  direct  utility  or  even  intellectual  power.") 
23 


354     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Everett's  Orations,  4.  248,  256. 

The  First  Century  of  the  Republic,  pp.  363-364.  Same,  Har- 
per, 52.  412-413  (Whipple). 

Griswold's  Prose  Writings  of  Am. 

Haweis's  Am.  Humorists,  Lect.  i . 

Hill's  Irving  (Am.  Authors  S.),  Chap.  10. 

D.  G.  Mitchell's  Bound  Together,  p.  3. 

Prescott's  Biog.  and  Crit.   Miscellanies  (Bost.,   1857),  p.  88. 

Richardson's  Am.  Lit.,  V.  i,  Chap.  7.  ("Nineteenth  century 
literature  has  nothing  better  of  the  kind  to  show  than 
Irving's  Essays  :  gentle,  winsome,  pathetic,  delicately 
humorous,  neatly  descriptive,  and  artistic.") 

Warner's  Irving  (Am.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  9,  10. 

Welsh's  Development  of  Eng.  Lit,  2.  303-307. 

Atlan.,  13.  694  ;  45.  396  (Warner). 

Blackw.,  6.  556  ;  11.  688  ;  16.  291. 

Chr.  Exam.,  73.  271. 

Chr.  R.,  15.  203. 

Cornh.,  1.  129-132. 

Ed.  R.,  34.  1 60  ;  37.  337  ;  173.  40-41. 

Fraser,  4.  435. 

Harper,  24.  349. 

Liv.  Age,  74.  579. 

Meth.  Q.,  16.  537. 

Nation,  3.  265  ;  36.  291. 

No.  Am.,  28.  103;  35.  191-192,  265;  41.  I  ;  44.  200;  86.  330. 

Quar.,  25.  50. 

Quar.,  114.  151  (Am.  ed.,  p.  78).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  78.  457. 

Westm.,  17.  132. 


VOLTAIRE. 

190.   Has   the  influence  of  Voltaire,  through  his  writings, 
been  on  the  whole  beneficent  t 

Voltaire's  works  are  numerous  and  various,  comprising 
poetry,  philosophy,  history,  religion,  and  criticism. 

He  had  an  active  and  fertile  mind,  but  more  versatile 
and  comprehensive  than  profound  or  original.  His  genius 
was  essentially  literary,  and  found  its  most  characteristic 
and  striking  expression  in  wit  and  satire.  Ambitious,  and 
with  a  great  capacity  for  productive  work,  he  gained  an 


LITERATURE.  355 

mmense  popularity  and  influence.  Indeed,  he  was  one  of 
he  best  representatives  of  the  general  characteristic  spirit  of 
lis  age,  especially  of  its  scepticism  and  of  its  revolutionary 
endencies. 

He  had  an  intense  hatred  of  superstition,  bigotry,  and 
>ersecution,  and  in  his  virulent  attack  upon  Christianity 
nade  too  little  discrimination  between  its  truths  and  its 
:orruptions.  Though  humane,  and  espousing  the  cause  of 
he  wronged,  he  lacked  reverence,  seriousness,  and  even 
airness.  He  was  doubtless  influential  in  the  promotion  of 
oleration  and  of  freedom  and  independence  of  inquiry. 
Phe  sentiment  and  spirit  fostered  by  his  writings  became 
in  important  factor  in  the  production  of  the  Revolution, 
:onsidered  both  as  to  its  good  and  its  evil. 

Vp.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  404. 

Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (old  ed.),  5.  22-24. 

Brougham's  Lives  of  Men  of  Letters  and  of  Science  who  flour- 
ished in  the  Time  of  George  III. 

Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization  (N.  Y.,  1862),  1.  575-592. 

lairnes's  Unbelief  in  the  i8th  Cent  (N.  Y.),  pp.  91-103. 

rarlyle:  i.  Essays,  2.  5. 

2.  Frederick  the  Great.     See  Index. 

)yer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  4.  312-316. 

Lncyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  21.  656  ;  9th  ed.,  24.  285  ;  also,  9.  592,  669. 

Crdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  2.  156-158. 

\.  S.  Farrar's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought,  Bampton  Lect  for 
1862  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  169-176. 

Hint's  Philos.  of  Hist,  in  France  and  Germany,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  5. 

^uizot's  Pop.  Hist,  of  France,  Chap.  55.     Same,  abr.  by  G. 
Masson  (Bost.),  pp.  515-521. 

ianley's  Voltaire  (For.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

lurst's  Hist,  of  Rationalism,  pp.  119-121. 

Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  V.  2.     See  Index. 

tforley's  Voltaire. 

5arton's  Life  of,  2  vols. 

rtrs.  Shelley's  Eminent  French  Writers,  2.  25. 

fame's  Ancient  Regime  (N.  Y.,  1876),  pp.  215,  217,  261-266. 

fan  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  V.  3,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  3. 

Vilkinson's  Classical  French  Course  in  English,  Chap.  16. 

Un.  Bib.  Repos.,  3d  S.,  3.  458. 

Ulan.,  48.  260. 


356    REFERENCES  FQR  LITERARY    WORKERS. 

Blacjcw.,  111.  270.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  113.  131. 

.  R.,  92.  193-197  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  101-103). 
Fortn.,  29.  678. 

Fraser,  85.  678.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  70.  I. 
Meth.  Q.,  26.  546. 

Nation,  15.  150  ;  21.  215  ;  26.  369  ;  33.  276,  297. 
New  Eng.,  1.  176-179;  32.  561-575. 
I9th  Cent.,  12.  613. 
No.  Am.,  115.  431. 
Quar.,  76.  62-82  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  34-44). 

Quar.,  135.  331  (Am.  ed.,  p.  175).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  119.  707. 
Westm.,  43.  384  (Am.  ed.,  p.  187). 
Westm.,  75.  363  (Am.  ed.,  p.  192).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  69.  387. 


ROUSSEAU. 

191.   Has  Rousseau's  influence  on  modern  thought  been  c 
the  whole  beneficial} 

Rousseau,  in  his  spirit  and  ideas,  was  less  a  reflectic 
of  his  age  than  the  prophet  of  a  new  age.  His  genius, 
not  his  ideas,  was  original.  His  thoughts  were  fresh  an 
radical,  and  potent  in  their  influence.  His  discussions  ha 
respect  to  fundamental  questions  concerning  the  nature  < 
man,  of  society,  of  government,  and  of  education,  and  wei 
clothed  in  a  philosophical  and  literary  form  attractive  an 
popular. 

In  their  nature  and  influence  his  ideas  were  revoli 
tionary,  and  he  was  himself  the  herald  and  prophet  of  th 
coming  revolution.  Hence  in  his  writings  is  found  th 
origin  of  the  spirit  and  doctrines  of  modem  democrac 
In  literature  he  was  the  founder  of  the  school  of  sent 
mentalism. 

His  influence  has  been  immense,  and  is,  like  his  charac 
ter  and  doctrines,  a  mixture.  His  doctrines  will  not  stan 
the  test  of  a  rigid  examination ;  but  this  only  shows,  nc 
that  they  are  wholly  wrong,  but  that  they  are  not  wholl 
right.  If  in  some  respects  their  fruit  has  been  evil,  i 
others  it  has  been  undeniably  good. 


LITERATURE. 


357 


Vlger's  Genius  of  Solitude,  p.  255. 

YmiePs  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1889),  Aug.  13,  1865, 

pp.  109-111. 
Yp.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  452. 
Zairnes's  Unbelief  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  104-113, 

204-207. 
.  F.  Clarke's   Memorial   and   Biographical  Sketches,  p.  345. 

Same,  Chr.  Exam.,  84.  133. 

)yer's  Mod.  Europe,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1877),  4.  318-325. 
Cncyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  1.  184;  15.  809  ;  19.  233,  288-289,  448- 

9th  ed.,  7.  675-676;   9.  592-667  ;  21.  23. 
irdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  2.  268-271. 
L.  S.  Farrar's  Hist,  of  Free  Thought  (N.  Y.),  pp.  183-188. 
iraham's  Rousseau  (For.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers) 
[*.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  113-117.    Same 

No.  Brit.,  48.  151-155.     See  also  2.  386. 
.owell's  Among  My  Books,  p.  349.     Same,  No.  Am.,  105.  242. 
laurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  2.  542-558. 
lorley's  Rousseau,  2  vols. 

>ainte-Beuve's  Monday  Chats,  trans.  (Chicago,  1877),  p.  141. 
aintsbury's  Short  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  pp.  482-486. 
Irs.  Shelley's  Eminent  Fr.  Writers,  2.  126. 
'aine's  Ancient  Regime.     See  Index. 
ran  Laun's  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit.,  V.  3,  Bk.  6.  Chap.  5,  sec.  I. 
Wilkinson's  Classical  Fr.  Course  in  English,  Chap.  17. 
Lm.  J.  Educ.,  5.  459. 
llackw.,  11.  137. 
!ontemp.,  30.  625. 
lornh.,  32.  439.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  660.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

127.  323. 

^d.  R.,  92.  197-199. 
or.  Q.,  27.  118  (Am.  ed.,  p.  63). 
'ortn.,  17.  494  (Rousseau's  Influence  on  European  Thought,  by 

Morley).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  79.  102. 
'ortn.,  18.  287,  438,  572. 
nternat.  R.,  5.  507,  648. 
lation,  17.  159. 
lat.  Q.,  19.  33. 
lew  Eng.,  32.  571. 
Io.  Am.,  15.  i. 
Vestm.,  72.  353. 


358      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


VII.    ART. 

THE  term  Art  is  used  to  express  the  unity  of  the 
Fine  Arts;  which  comprise  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting,  to  which  may  be  added  music. 

Architecture  expresses  an  ideal  of  form  in  the  pro- 
portion and  symmetry  of  the  parts  and  in  the  unity 
of  the  whole.  Sculpture  gives  an  ideal  of  the  form 
and  expression  of  living  beings,  especially  of  man. 
Painting  is  larger  in  its  scope,  adding  Nature,  and 
thus  comprising  beings  and  things ;  but  while  sculp- 
ture gives  prominence  to  form,  painting  gives  promi- 
nence to  expression.  Music  stands  by  itself,  in  that, 
as  the  artistic  use  of  sound,  it  addresses  the  ear 
and  not  the  eye,  and  is  therefore  less  material  and 
sensuous. 

Poetry,  though  artistic,  is  not  properly  art,  but  lit- 
erature. In  their  general  characteristics  art  and  lit- 
erature are  parallel.  Both  are  representative,  showing 
nature,  and  human  character  and  life.  In  aim  and 
scope  they  are  co-ordinate.  Their  end  is  ideal ;  their 
influence,  in  its  truth,  elevating  and  refining.  Litera- 
ture gives  prominence  to  thought,  art  to  that  which 
excites  feeling.  Literature  partakes  of  art,  and  in 
this  respect  is  secondary  to  it. 

Art  is  as  wide  as  the  human  race,  and  as  various 
as  human  genius  and  character.  Yet  it  must  be 
judged  from  its  height.  Its  masters  make  its  laws. 
Their  works  show  it  at  its  best.  It  is  in  these, 
therefore,  that  it  may  be  truly  and  wholly  known. 

Art  is  an  incarnation  of  the  ideal.  It  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  divine,  of  nature,  and  of  man,  and  in 


ART.  359 

all  of  the  spiritual.  The  spiritual  or  ideal  is  the  soul 
of  art,  giving  it  elevation,  worth,  and  influence.  The 
central  principle  of  the  ideal  in  art  is  beauty.  Other 
principles  may,  indeed,  find  place,  but  this  holds  the 
throne.  Thus  beauty  in  art  corresponds  to  love  in 
morals.  This  is  the  perfection  of  art,  its  crown,  its 
charm,  its  title  to  immortality.  Beauty  is  natural 
and  spiritual;  the  first  is  in  form,  the  second  in  ex- 
pression. To  his  spiritual  vision  the  artist  gives  an 
enduring  form,  visible  to  all  who  have  an  eye  for  it. 
But  for  the  spiritual  in  art  there  is  required  a  spiritual 
eye. 

Art  is  not  a  mere  copying  of  nature ;  it  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  spiritual  or  ideal  in  nature.  Any 
one  with  a  mind  for  the  ideal  may  for  himself  see 
nature  as  ideal,  even  though  he  cannot  give  to  his 
vision  form  or  expression.  But  the  vision  of  the 
artist  is  an  inspiration  that  is  a  creative  power,  which 
reproduces  the  ideal  of  nature,  not  by  imitation,  but 
by  creation.  Hence  art  is  personal  according  to  the 
measure  of  its  creativeness.  The  works  of  the  great 
masters  bear  the  indelible  marks  of  their  genius. 
Hence  a  work  of  art  not  only  represents  some  scene, 
or  object,  or  person,  but  the  mind  of  the  artist.  In 
his  work,  then,  the  artist  imparts  to  all  of  like  mind 
somewhat  of  his  own  inspiration,  in  the  perception,  if 
not  for  the  creation,  of  the  ideal ;  and  this  refining  and 
elevating  influence  of  art  is  its  practical  justification. 


GREEK  ART   AND   RENAISSANCE   ART. 
192.   Is  Greek  art  surpassed  by  Renaissance  art? 

Art  is  individual,  national,  and  historic.  It  is  the  crea- 
tion of  individual  genius,  which  is  itself  the  creature  and 
representative  of  its  age  and  nation. 


360      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

In  ancient  times  it  rose  to  its  height  in  Greece  during  its 
flourishing  period ;  in  modern  times,  in  Italy,  especially  at 
the  period  of  the  Renaissance. 

Greek  art  represents  faithfully  the  ideal  Greek,  in  his 
physical  vigor  and  perfection  of  bodily  form,  and  in  the 
imagination  and  human-  interest  which  gave  to  his  mind 
attractiveness  and  vivacity. 

The  art  of  the  Renaissance  also  expresses  the  spirit  of 
its  own  age  :  the  awaking  to  new  light,  life,  and  power ;  the 
appropriating  of  the  past  to  transform  it  into  the  future ; 
the  inspiration  of  a  new  hope  and  of  high  aspiration.  The 
great  masters  of  both  periods,  in  the  fulness  of  their  inspi- 
ration, rose  above  their  fellows,  and  immortalized  their 
time.  Thus  art  brought  forth  and  made  forever  incarnate 
the  ideal. 

GREEK  ART. 

The  originality,  character,  and  perfection  of  the  mind  of 
the  ancient  Greeks  is  found  especially  in  their  literature, 
art,  and  philosophy. 

In  art,  as  comprising  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing, they  excelled  in  the  first  and  second.  Both  architec- 
ture and  sculpture  appear  in  close  connection  with  religion ; 
the  one  in  the  construction  of  their  temples,  the  other  in 
the  representation  in  human  form  of  their  gods.  The  per- 
fection of  Greek  art  is  found  especially  in  form,  but  also  in 
expression.  Their  gods  appear  with  human  characteristics 
raised  to  the  ideal.  Greek  art  is  thus  a  visible  and  ideal 
representation  of  Greek  mythology.  In  this  may  be  seen 
its  affinity  to  Greek  literature,  which  is  also  mythological. 

D'Anvers's  Hist,  of  Art.,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  5  ;  Pt.  2,  Chap.  3  ;  Pt.  3, 
Chap.  i. 

De  Forest's  Short  Hist,  of  Art  (N.  Y.),  pp.  45-79. 

Dyer's  Imitative  Arts  (Lond.,  1882),  sec.  i,  pp.  32-57. 

Encyc.  Brit,  2.  343,  Classical  Archaeology;  2.  401-413,  Archi- 
tecture. 

Felton's  Greece,  2.  136-145. 

Fergusson's  Hist,  of  Architecture  (Bost.,  1883),  V.  I,  Bk.  3. 


'or  THE 
UNIVERSITY 


Lloyd's  Age  of  Pericles  (Lond.),  V.  2,  Chap.  52-53. 

Long's   Art:     its    Laws   and    the   Reasons   for   them    (Bost.), 

Ess.  12. 
Lubke:  I.  Hist,  of  Art,  trans.  (Lond.,  1874,  and  N.  Y.,  1878), 

V.  i,  Bk.  2. 

2.  Hist,  of  Sculpture,  trans.  (Lond.,  1872),  Bk.  2. 
Miiller's  Ancient  Art  (Lond.,  1852). 
Von  Reber's  Hist,  of  Ancient  Art,   trans.  (Lond.,  1883),  pp. 

175-386. 
Seyffert's  Diet,  of    Classical  Antiquities,  trans.  (Lond.,   1891). 

Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting,  pp.  49,  443,  562. 
Smith  :  i.  Hist,  of  Greece,  ed.  by  Felton  (Bost.),  Bk.  2,  Chap.  14. 

2.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geog.  (Lond.,  1870),  1.  265- 

281. 

3.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.  (Lond.,  1873),  1.  221  ; 

3.  243,  454,  519. 
Winckelmann's  Hist,  of  Ancient  Art,  trans.  (Bost.,  1880),  V.  2, 

Bk.  8-10. 

Atlan.,  7.  654;  8.  76. 
Cent,  9.  257,  397. 
Ed.  R.,  140.  168. 
Westm.,  87.  91. 

RENAISSANCE  ART. 

The  revival  of  learning  or  literature  was  accompanied 
with  the  revival  of  art.  But  in  neither  case  was  it  a  mere 
revival  ;  it  was  also  a  new  birth.  The  classical  spirit  found 
in  the  new  or  modern  spirit  at  once  its  mate  and  its  rival. 
This  is  especially  true  in  respect  to  art.  Great  masters  pro- 
duced great  works  of  art  ;  and  these  possessed  the  origi- 
nality of  genius,  so  that  they  stand  for  themselves. 

In  Greek  art  painting  stands  last,  but  in  Renaissance  art 
first  ;  hence  this  is  most  characteristic  of  the  Renaissance. 
Renaissance  art  is  largely  religious  or  Christian.  In  this  it 
is  mediaeval  ;  and  with  the  mediaeval  is  joined  the  classical 
or  pagan.  Thus  Renaissance  art  is  the  product  and  the  re- 
flection of  the  age  in  which  it  flourished. 

D'Anvers's  Hist,  of  Art,  Pt.  1,  Chap.  13  ;  Pt.  2,  Chap.  9. 

De  Forest's  Short  Hist,  of  Art,  pp.  184-309. 

Dyer's  Imitative  Arts  (Lond.,  1882),  sec.  i,  pp.  57-101. 


362     REFERENCES  POR^  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Eastlake's   Handbook  of  Painting.      The   Italian  Schools,  4th 

ed.  (Lond.,  1874),  2  vols.,  Bk.  4,  5. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  14.  455  (Leonardo);  16.  229  (Michelangelo;;   20. 

274  (Raphael) ;   23.  413  (Titian). 
Mrs.  Heaton's  Concise  Hist,  of  Painting,  Bk.  4;  Bk.  7,  Chap. 

2-4. 

Mrs.  Jameson's  Early  Italian  Painters  (Bost.,  1866). 
Lanzi's  Hist,  of  Painting  in  Italy,  trans.  (Lond.,  1852),  3  vols. 
Long's  Art:  its  Laws,  and  the  Reasons  for  them  (Bost.),  Ess. 

8,9- 
Lubke  :  I.    Hist,  of  Art,  trans.  (Lond.,  1874,  and  N.  Y.,  1878), 

V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  2-4. 

2.    Hist,  of  Sculpture  (Lond.,  1872),  Bk.  5,  Chap.  3,  4. 
Pater,  The  Renaissance,  3d  ed.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1888). 
Mrs.  Mark  Pattison's  Renaissance  of  Art  in  France  (Lond., 

1879),  2  vols. 

Perkins's  Historical  Handbook  of  Ital.  Sculpture,  Bk.  2,  3. 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy  (N.  Y.,  1882),  V.  3,  The  Fine 

Arts. 
Sarah  Tytler,  The  Old  Masters  (Bost.,  1874). 


ART   AND  SCIENCE. 

193.  Are  art  and  science  antagonistic  ? 

1 94.  Is  the  general  prevalence  of  natural  science  prejudicial 

to  the  cultivation  of  high  art  ? 

Art  is  rather  of  imagination  than  of  reason,  science  rather 
of  reason  than  of  imagination ;  yet  neither  is  art  without 
reason,  nor  science  without  imagination. 

Both  deal,  in  some  sort,  with  the  same  objects,  with  na- 
ture and  man,  yet  in  quite  a  different  way.  The  scientist 
observes,  gathers  facts,  analyzes,  draws  conclusions,  gen- 
eralizes, and  systematizes.  The  artist  also  observes,  but  in 
order  to  gain  impressions  of  beauty,  of  form,  of  proportion 
and  harmony ;  and  then  he  idealizes,  transforms,  creates. 
Science  and  art  are,  therefore,  distinct  and  contrasted,  with- 
out being  necessarily  opposed  or  mutually  exclusive.  Both 
are  of  the  human  mind,  and  may  coexist  in  the  same  mind. 
The  great  artist,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  also  distinguished 
for  his  scientific  achievements;  yet  he  must  doubtless  be 


ART.  363 

regarded  as  an  exception.     In  general  the  artistic  and  sci- 
entific minds  are  distinct,  and  do  not  go  together. 

Science  has  the  wider  sphere  ;  art  the  higher.  Science  is 
more  practical ;  art  more  ideal.  Science  may,  in  some  de- 
gree, modify  art,  but  not  essentially.  Art  may  make  some 
use  of  science,  but  is  not  dependent  on  it.  High  art,  like 
good  literature,  is  the  production  of  individual  genius.  From 
this  view,  does  science,  by  promoting  the  practical,  tend  to 
repress  a  high  ideal  in  art  ? 

Brown's  Spare  Hours  (Bost.),  3d  S.,  p.  193. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.  (Lond.),  2.  217-218. 

Mozley's  University  Sermons.     Ser.  6,  Nature. 

Ruskin's  Mod.  Painters,  V.  3,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  17,  sec.  40-43;  V.  4, 

App.  No.  2. 
Spencer's  Education  (N.  Y.,  1866),  pp.  71-84.     Same,  Westm., 

72.  28-34  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  19-20). 

Sweetser's  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (Artist  Biographies),  esp.  Chap.  8. 
Thomson's  Outlines  of  Thought,  Introd.  sec.  7. 
Tyndall's  Fragments  of  Science,  Chap.  7. 
Nature,  28.  50. 
New  Eng.,  33.  173  (Points  of  Contact  between  Science  and 

Art,  by  Weir). 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  25.  357  (Are  Art  and  Science  antagonistic?). 
Westm.,  96.  398  (Am.  ed.,  p.  191).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  111.  438. 

(Bearings  of  Science  upon  Art.) 


POETRY   AND  SCIENCE. 

195.    Does  the  prevalence  of  natural  science  tend  to  check 
the  poetic  spirit  1 

This  question  resembles  the  preceding,  and  requires  a 
like  treatment.  Is  science,  in  any  sense  and  degree,  ad- 
verse to  the  exercise  of  the  imagination?  Has  the  sci- 
entific use  of  the  imagination  any  likeness  or  relation  to 
its  use  in  poetry? 

Science  dominates  the  modern  mind.  Does  this  tend  to 
the  dethronement  of  poetry?  Or  may  there  be  a  joint, 
harmonious  reign  ?  Is  the  absorbing  pursuit  of  science  in- 


364      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

compatible  with  an  absorbing  interest  in  poetry?  Darwin, 
by  his  own  confession,  through  his  absorbing  pursuit  of  sci- 
ence, incapacitated  himself  for  his  early  appreciation  of  po- 
etry. On  the  other  hand,  Goethe,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
poets,  was  also  an  amateur  scientist ;  though  whether  his 
studies  hi  science  were  not  prosecuted  rather  in  a  poetic 
than  in  a  strictly  scientific  spirit  may  be  a  matter  for 
investigation. 

Is  not  imagination  as  essential  an  element  of  human 
nature  as  reason?  Can  it,  then,  taking  mankind  in  gen- 
eral, be  effectually  overcome  by  reason,  so  as  not  to  have 
its  legitimate,  free,  and  full  exercise?  In  short,  what  are 
the  legitimate  dominion  and  influence  of  science  as  one  of 
the  chief  provinces  of  reason?  And  what,  likewise,  of  po- 
etry, as  one  of  the  chief  creations  of  the  imagination? 

Burroughs's  Indoor  Studies,  p.  67  (Science  and  the  Poets). 

Darwin's  Life  and  Letters  (Am.  ed.),  1-  81-82. 

Helmholtz's  Pop.  Lect.  on  Scientific  Subjects  (N.  Y.,  1881),  V.  I, 

Lect.  2,  (On  Goethe's  Scientific  Researches). 
Hunt's  Poetry  of  Science,  Introd. 

Charles  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  2.  160-161. 
Peirce's  Ideality  in  the  Physical  Sciences,  Lect.  i. 
Shairp's  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature,  Chap.  3-6. 
Spencer's  Education  (N.  Y.,  1866),  pp.  81-83.     Same,  Westm., 

72.  33-34  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  16-20). 
Stedman's  Victorian  Poets,  Chap,   i,  sec.  2,  pp.  7-21.     Also 

p.  170. 
Tyndall's  Fragments  of  Science,  Chap.  7  (Scientific  Use  of  the 

Imagination). 
Contemp.,  30.  558  (The  Scientific  Movement  and  Literature  : 

Dowden). 

Fraser,  39.  378  (The  Poetry  of  Science). 
Nat.  Q.,  23.  207  (The  Decline  of  Poetry). 
No.  Brit.,  13.  117-121,  127-128  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  63-66,69).     Same, 

Eel.  M.,  20.  280. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  25.  363-365. 


ART.  365 


ART  AND   MORALITY. 

196.  Does   art,    in   its  principles   and   works,    imply  the 

moral? 

197.  Is  art  amenable  to  an  ethical  standard? 

Art  has  a  sphere  of  its  own,  distinct,  definite,  and  in  a 
sense  independent.  That  is,  art  is  not  science  or  any  part 
of  it,  or  ethics  or  any  part  of  it.  There  may,  indeed,  be 
both  a  science  and  an  ethics  of  art,  but  neither  of  these  is 
art  itself.  Art  has  its  own  peculiar  characteristics,  which 
make  it  what  it  is,  and  which  it  shares  with  nothing  else. 
Art  has,  therefore,  its  end  in  itself  as  really  as  science  or 
ethics.  Hence  the  end  of  art  is  not  merely  to  serve  moral- 
ity. It  is  not  necessarily,  in  its  aim  and  end,  didactic,  as 
implying  a  moral  purpose.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  an  end 
in  itself,  quite  distinct  from  the  moral  or  the  scientific. 
Beauty  has  an  end  in  itself;  and  therefore  is  not  merely 
subsidiary  to,  but  is  rather  co-ordinate  with,  the  true  and 
the  good.  Its  end  is,  indeed,  to  give  pleasure,  but  pleas- 
ure of  a  peculiar  kind,  which  it  alone  can  give,  —  namely, 
the  satisfaction  of  the  sense  of  beauty.  All  this  must  be 
true  of  art  in  order  that  it  may  be  art. 

But  this  does  by  no  means  imply  that  it  is  so  dissevered 
from  either  science  or  ethics  that  it  bears  to  them  no  rela- 
tion whatsoever,  so  as  neither  to  affect  them  nor  to  be  af- 
fected by  them.  On  the  contrary,  on  going  to  the  root  of 
the  matter,  there  will  be  found  to  be  between  the  true  the 
beautiful  and  the  good  a  profound  and  vital  relation. 

Art  is  both  form  and  spirit ;  and  it  is  in  its  soul  that  it  is 
found  intimately  related  to  the  moral.  It  is  not,  indeed, 
moral  in  such  a  sense,  or  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  can  be 
made  a  substitute  for  morality.  But  as  the  creative  work 
of  man,  a  rational  and  moral  being,  it  is  amenable  as  well 
to  the  ethical  as  to  the  aesthetical  standard.  While  the 
artist  works  from  the  inward  inspiration,  with  no  con- 
sciousness of  a  definite  moral  aim,  the  inspiration  itself, 


366      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

if  it  be  true,  is  not  only  artistic,  but  the  very  essence  of 
the  moral. 

Art  cannot  transform  the  immoral  into  the  unmoral.  A 
moral  sentiment,  for  instance,  does  not  lose  its  character  by 
being  put  into  the  form  of  poetry  or  fiction.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  immoral,  since  it  cannot  be  wholly  passed  by  as 
if  it  were  not,  may  receive  a  representation  which,  in  its 
spirit  and  influence,  shall  be  moral. 

In  short,  art  may  be,  in  its  principle  and  influence,  moral 
or  immoral,  but  not  unmoral.  All  true  art  is  moral,  whole- 
some, refining,  elevating. 

Day's  Sci.  of  ^Esthetics,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  2,  3.     Also  sec.  112,  336. 
Emerson's  Society  and  Solitude,  Prose  Works  (1879),  3-  32' 
Haweis's  Music  and  Morals  (N.  Y.,  1872),  sec.  14-18,  27. 
Hudson's  Shakespeare:  his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters  (Bost., 

1872),  1.  127-133. 

Ladd's  Introd.  to  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  pp.  348-350. 
Ruskin's  Lectures  on  Art.,  Lect.  3. 
Cent.,  4.  131  (Lanier). 

Contemp.,  5.  418  (The  Immoral  Theory  of  Art). 
Ev.  Sat.,  14.  386. 

Independent,  1873,  Apr.  17,  p.  486. 
New  Eng.,  24.  679-683;  45.  787-790. 
No.    Am.,   81.    212;    134.    546  (Walt    Whitman);    146.    318 

(Ingersoll). 

Oberlin  Rev.,  9.  63:  10.  56,  68,  185,  195,  208,  219,  225. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  9.  148  (Mod.  >Estheticism,  by  Theo.  W.  Hunt); 

11.91. 
Westm.,  91.  148  (Am.  ed.,  p.  66> 


ART   AND   RELIGION. 
198.    Is  the  influence  of  the  fine  arts  favorable  to  religion  ? 

The  fine  arts  in  this  question  should  be  used  as  includ- 
ing architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting,  and  excluding 
music  and  poetry.  Religion  should  be  taken  in  the  sense 
of  true  or  spiritual  religion.  The  relation  of  art  and  reli- 
gion may  then  be  considered  as  seen  in  their  fundamental 


ART.  367 

principles,  and  likewise  in  their  history ;  the  one  giving 
them  in  their  ideal,  the  other  in  their  actual,  relation. 

Art  and  religion  are  both  ideal.  The  ideal  of  religion  is 
the  relation  of  the  finite  spirit  to  God,  the  Infinite  Spirit. 
Art  is  the  ideal  representation  of  the  natural  and  the  human, 
as  these  are  the  work  and  manifestation  of  the  Infinite 
Spirit.  Hence  art  shows  God  somewhat  as  nature  and  man 
show  Him,  and  in  this  respect  bears  a  similar  relation  to 
religion.  Architecture,  however,  does  not  properly  come 
under  this  idea  of  art,  and  must  be  considered  by  itself. 

Both  religion  and  art  address  the  feelings,  the  senti- 
ments. But  religion  is,  in  its  essential  nature,  spiritual ; 
while  art  appeals  to  the  feelings  through  the  senses.  Art 
would,  therefore,  seem  to  touch  religion  rather  on  its  formal 
and  sensible  than  on  its  spiritual  side.  To  verify  or  to  cor- 
rect this  presupposition  the  history  of  religious,  and  espe- 
cially of  Christian  art,  must  be  consulted.  This  history  is 
full  of  interest  and  of  instruction,  as  showing  the  intimate 
relation  of  art  and  of  religion,  and  the  influence  of  each 
upon  the  other. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  the  human  mind  to  give  attention 
to  the  external  to  the  neglect  of  the  spiritual ;  whereas  the 
spiritual  mind,  even  in  the  use  of  the  external,  is  absorbed 
in  the  spiritual.  Does  art  encourage  this  tendency  of  the 
ordinary  mind  to  the  external  ?  And  in  what  respect,  and 
to  what  degree,  is  it  a  help  to  the  spiritual  mind? 

Hudson's  Shakespeare:  his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters  (Bost., 

1872),  1.  133-138- 
Mrs.  Jameson  :  i .  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  2  vols. 

2.  Legends  of  the  Madonna  as  represented  in 

the  Fine  Arts. 

Mrs.  Jameson  and  Lady  Eastlake's  Hist,  of  Our  Lord  as  exem- 
plified in  Works  of  Art. 
Lundy's  Monumental  Christianity. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Latin  Christianity,  2.  297-304.     Also  V.  8, 

Bk.  14,  Chap.  8-io. 

Ruskin  :  I.  Mod.  Painters  (N.  Y.,  1858),  Pref .  to  2d  ed.,  1.  xxii- 
xxvi. 

2.  The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture. 

3.  Lectures  on  Art,  Lect.  2. 


368      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Shairp's  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  333-335. 

Art.  J.,  16.  197. 

Contemp.,  1.  68 ;   2.  59,  393;   3.  180;  4.  340;  5.418;  6.372; 

10.  178. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  10.  204. 
Meth.  Q.,  37.  79. 
Nat.  R.,  4.  30. 
New  Eng.,  45.  783. 
No.  Am.,  79.  r. 
Quar.,  116.  143.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  63.  265. 

PHOTOGRAPHY   AND  ENGRAVING. 

199.  Has  photography  done  more  to  popularize  art  than 

engraving  ? 

200.  Is  photography  of  greater  importance  than  engraving  ? 

Photography  and  engraving  may  be  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  secondary  or  minor  class  in  art.  They  have 
a  closer  connection  with  science,  and  have  more  of  the 
mechanical  and  less  of  the  individual  and  creative  element 
than  art  proper.  They  reproduce  rather  than  create,  copy 
rather  than  originate.  The  photographer,  it  is  true,  gen- 
erally copies  nature,  and  thus  makes  an  original  picture ; 
but  he  does  it  by  a  mechanical  and  scientific  process,  re- 
quiring no  high  degree  of  artistic  talent  or  skill.  The  en- 
graver, on  the  other  hand,  is  more  an  artist  than  the 
photographer. 

The  chief  importance  of  both  of  these  arts  consists  in 
their  power  to  multiply  pictures  indefinitely;  so  that  art 
may,  in  a  measure,  be  possessed  and  enjoyed  by  all. 

The  fields  they  occupy,  though  parallel,  are  not  identical ; 
so  that  they  are  rather  co-ordinate  than  rival  arts.  The 
great  use  of  photography  is  in  taking  portraits ;  while  en- 
graving finds  large  use  in  providing  illustrations  for  books 
and  periodicals.  Other  more  practical  uses  are  served  by 
both ;  which  will  help  in  making  an  estimate  of  their  rel- 
ative importance.  The  study  of  each,  in  its  nature,  his- 
tory, and  uses,  by  which  an  intelligent  comparison  of  them 
may  be  made,  will  afford  much  interest  and  instruction. 


ART.  369 

.    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  472-473- 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  17.  553  ;  9th  ed.,  18.  821. 

Hamerton's  Talks  about  Art,  Chap.  5. 

Routledge's  Discoveries  and  Inventions  of  the  ipth  Century, 

p.  446. 
Vogel's  Chemistry  of  Light  and  Photography  (Internat.  Sci.  S.), 

Chap.  14. 

Art  J.,  4.  101;  5.  13,  181 ;  10.  261,  273  ;  11.  61,  71 ;  13.  48. 
Atlan.,  12.  i. 

Brit.  Q.,44-  347-     Same,  Liv.  Age,  92.  195. 
Ed.  R.,  133.  338  (Am.  ed.,  p.  173). 
Fraser,  47.  505. 
Liv.  Age,  41.  552. 
Nat.  R.,  8.  365. 

No.  Brit.,  7.  465  (Am.  ed.,  p.  248).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  12.  230. 
No.  Brit.,  36.  170  (Am.  ed.,  p.  90). 

Quar.,  101.  442  (Am.  ed.,  p.  241);  116.  482  (Am.  ed.,  p.  230). 
Tait,  N.  S.,  17.  625.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  28.  296. 

ENGRAVING. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  6.  648. 

Blanc's  Grammar  of  Painting  and  of  Engraving,  p.  239. 

Delaborde's  Engraving :  its  Origin,  Processes,  and  History. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  8.  799;  9th  ed.,  8.  435. 

Linton's  Hist,  of  Wood  Engraving  in  Am. 

Ruskin's  Ariadne  Florentini :    Lectures  on  Wood  and  Metal 

Engraving. 

Woodberry's  Hist,  of  Wood  Engraving. 
Atlan.,  43.  705  (Linton).     Ans.  in  Scrib.  Mo.,  18.  456. 
Atlan.,  51.  260. 
Cent.,  2.  230. 
Eel.  M.,  53.  260. 
For.  Q.,  26.  312;  27.74. 
Harper,  64.  704;  65.  257. 
Nation,  29.  14. 
No.  Am.,  49.  118. 
No.  Brit.,  6.  141  (Am.  ed.,  p.  73). 
Scrib.  Mo.,  4.  398;  16.  237;  21.  937. 
Westm.,  29.  265. 

24 


370      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO  AND  'RAPHAEL. 
201.   Is  Michael  Angela  a  greater  artist  than  Raphael  ? 

Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael  are  the  two  greatest  mod- 
ern painters ;  which  of  these  is  the  greater  it  is  not  easy  to 
decide.  Take  him  all  in  all,  Angelo  is  probably  the  greater 
man  and  the  greater  genius ;  but  this  does  by  no  means 
make  it  certain  that  he  is  the  greater  artist. 

The  genius  of  Angelo  was  profound  and  original,  and  im- 
parted its  grandeur  to  his  work.  In  whatever  he  did  he 
was  great,  —  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and  poetry  as  well 
as  in  painting;  whereas  Raphael  displayed  his  wonderful 
genius  as  an  artist  in  painting  alone.  But  in  this  he  ex- 
hibited a  genius  capable  of  wide  range,  of  great  variety,  of 
large  assimilation,  of  amazing  fertility,  and  with  a  facility 
and  completeness  of  execution  equal  to  the  perfection  of 
his  conception. 

Taken  together,  they  represent,  in  a  high  degree,  two 
distinct  and  contrasted  types  of  artistic  genius.  The  works 
of  Angelo  are  characterized  by  grandeur,  sublimity,  and 
strength,  exciting  wonder  and  awe  ;  the  works  of  Raphael, 
by  beauty,  grace,  and  perfection,  exciting  admiration  and 
delight.  Representing  thus  in  their  perfection  these  two 
opposite  sides  of  art,  each,  while  distinct  and  complete 
in  himself,  serves  at  the  same  time  to  complement  the 
other. 

ANGELO. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  442. 
Art  Suggestions  from  the  Masters,  ist  S.  (N.  Y.,  1881).     See 

Index. 

Bryan's  Diet  of  Painters  and  Engravers  (Lond.,  1853),  p.  23. 
Champlin's  Cyc.  of  Painters  and  Paintings,  3.  260. 
Mrs.  Clement's  Painters,  Sculptors,  etc.,  p.  140. 
D'Anvers's  Elementary  Hist,  of  Art.     See  Index,  Buonarotti. 
De  Forest's  Short  Hist,  of  Art.     See  Index. 
Eastlake's  Handbook  of  Painting.      The  Italian  School,  V.  I, 

Bk.  5,  Chap.  3. 


ART.  371 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  3.  708-709 ;  14.  736.     9th  ed.,  16.  229. 

Grimm's  Life  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Harford's  Life  of. 

Mrs.  Heaton's  Concise  Hist,  of  Painting,  p.  169. 

Mrs.  Jameson's  Italian  Painters  (Bost.,  1866),  p.  191. 

Lanzi's  Hist,  of  Painting  in  Italy  (Lond.,  1852),  1.  133. 

Long's  Art :  its  Laws,  and  the  Reasons  for  them,  Ess.  8,  pp. 

114-122. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  29. 
Lubke:   i.  Hist,  of  Art  (N.  Y.,  1878),  2.  301. 

2.  Hist,  of  Sculpture  (Lond.,  1872),  2.  370. 
Outline  Engravings  from  Sculptures,  Paintings,  and  Designs  by 

Michael  Angelo  (Lond.). 
Perkins:   i.  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo. 

2.  Handbook  of  Ital.  Sculpture,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  2. 
Sweetser's  Michael  Angelo  (Artist  Biog.  S.). 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  V.  3,  Fine  Arts,  Chap.  8.    See 

also  Index,  Buonarotti. 

F.  C.  Turner's  Short  Hist,  of  Art  (Lond.,  1888),  Chap.  25. 
Sarah  Tytler's  Old  Masters,  p.  96. 
Viardot's  Wonders  of  Sculpture.   Lib.  of  Wonders  (N.  Y.,  i§73), 

p.  209. 

Wilson's  Life  and  Works  of  Michael  Angelo. 
Blackw.,  45.  257  ;  118.  461.    Same,  Liv.  Age,  127.451.    Same 

Eel.  M.,  85.  712. 

Eel.  R.,  121.  317.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  65.  32. 
Ed.  R.,  106.  507  (Am.  ed.,  p.  264);  144.  104  (Am.  ed.,  p.  54). 
Internat.  R.,  2.  763. 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  3.  73. 
New  Eng.,  19/785. 
No.  Am.,  125.  499. 

Quar.,  103.  436  (Am.  ed.,  p.  241).    Same,  Liv.  Age,  57.  723. 
Quar.,  147.  336  (Am.  ed.,  p.  180). 

RAPHAEL. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  205. 
Art  Suggestions  from  the  Masters,  ist  S.  (N.  Y.,  1881).     See 

Index. 

Bryan's  Diet,  of  Painters  and  Engravers  (Lond.,  p.  6n). 
Champlin  and  Perkins's  Cyc.  of  Painters  and  Paintings,  4.  6. 
Mrs.  Clement's  Painters,  Sculptors,  etc.,  p.  472. 
D'Anvers's  Elementary  Hist,  of  Art.     See  Index. 
De  Forest's  Short  Hist,  of  Art,  pp.  241-247. 


372 


REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


Eastlake's  Handbook  of  Painting.     The  Ital.   School,  Bk.  5, 

Chap.  4. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  3.  708-709 ;  18.  750.     9th  ed.,  20.  274. 
Mrs.  Heaton's  Concise  Hist,  of  Painting,  p.  142. 
Mrs.  Jameson's  Ital.  Painters  (Bost.,  1866),  p.  228. 
Lanzi's  Hist,  of  Painting  in  Italy,  V.  I,  Bk.  3,  Ep.  2,  p.  354. 
Long's  Art :   its  Laws,  and  the  Reasons  for  them,  Ess.  8,  pp. 

122-127. 

Lubke's  Hist,  of  Art  (N.  Y.,  1873),  2.  323. 
Perkins's  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo. 
Sweetser's  Raphael  (Artist  Biog.  S.). 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy,  V.  3,  Fine  Arts,  pp.  327-330. 

Also  see  Index. 

F.  C.  Turner's  Short  Hist,  of  Art.  (Lond,  1888),  Chap.  26. 
Sarah  Ty tier's  Old  Masters,  p.  125. 
Am.  Presb.  R.  (1866),  15.  602. 
Art  J.,  3.  169;  5.  216. 
Blackw.,45.  809;  57.411. 
Fraser,  30.  154. 

J.  Soec.  Philos.,  1.  53;  7.  (Oct.)  27. 
Nation,  32.  208. 
Nat.  Q.,  27.  252. 
No.  Am.,  46.  83. 

Penny  M.,  1.  349;  2.  18,  75,  124,  173,  219,  261. 
Quar.,  66.  i. 

BEETHOVEN   AND  MOZART. 
202.  Is  Beethoven  a  greater  composer  than  Mozart  1 

These  two  great  masters  in  music  may  be  considered  in 
respect  to  their  peculiar  individual  genius,  and  likewise  in 
respect  to  their  position  in  and  influence  upon  the  general 
development  of  music.  Considered  as  to  their  individual 
genius,  they  present,  in  the  general  cast  and  tone  of  their 
mind,  a  clear  resemblance,  the  one  to  Michael  Angelo,  the 
other  to  Raphael ;  hence,  at  least  in  some  degree,  there 
may  be  made  between  them  a  like  comparison.  The  one 
has  more  strength,  the  other  more  beauty ;  the  one  more 
passion,  the  other  a  greater  serenity ;  hence  the  one  arouses, 
the  other  charms ;  if  the  one  is  more  profound,  the  other  is 
more  versatile. 


ART.  373 

Though  contemporaries,  Beethoven  had  the  advantage, 
as  the  younger,  of  being,  in  the  line  of  eminent  composers, 
the  successor  of  Mozart ;  and  by  his  original  and  powerful 
genius  he  made  a  most  important  contribution  to  the  de- 
velopment of  music.  Yet  Mozart  was  not  eclipsed  or  super- 
seded ;  his  fame  and  his  work  endure.  Both  are  great 
masters,  with  differing  excellences.  As  to  superiority, 
many  pronounce  for  Beethoven,  some  for  Mozart;  while 
others,  admiring  both,  are  unable  to  decide  between 
them. 

BEETHOVEN. 

Amiel's  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.,  1889),  PP-4°»  59~6o  (Contrasted 

with  Mozart). 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  472. 
Champlin  and  Apthorp's  Cyc.  of  Music  and  Musicians  (N.  Y.), 

1.  141. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  4.  590.     9th  ed.,  3.  504 ;  17.  97. 
Ehler's  Letters  on  Music,  Letters  2,  3. 
Fillmore's  Hist,  of  Pianoforte   Music  (Chicago,  1883),  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  6.     Also  pp.  99-101. 

Grove's  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians,  1.  162;  2.  519-520. 
Hunt's  Concise  Hist,  of  Music.     See  Index. 
Letters  of  Beethoven,  trans.  (Bost.). 
Mathews's  How  to  understand  Music,  V.  I,  Chap.  46. 
Ritter's  Hist,  of  Music  (Bost.,  1874).  2.  193. 
Rockstro's  Hist,  of  Music,  Chap.  25. 
Schindler's  Life  of  Beethoven,  ed.  by  Moscheles. 
Sarah  Tytler's  Musical  Composers  (Bost.,  1875),  Chap.  4. 
Wagner's  Beethoven,  trans.  (Lond.,  1870). 
Atlan.,  1.  847. 

Brit.  Q.,  55.  27  (Am.  ed.,  p.  14). 
Eel.  M.,  77.  630. 

Ed.  R.,  138.  366  (Am.  ed.,  p.  188).    Same,  Liv.  Age,  119.483 
For.  Q.,  8.  439. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  2.  37,  241 ;  4.  274;  9.  61. 
Macmil.,  34.  193. 
Nation,  2.  756. 
No.  Am.,  53.  289. 
O.  and  N.,  3.  367. 
Penny  M.,  9.  14. 
Westm.,  32.  327. 


3/4     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

MOZART. 

Amiel's  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.,  1889),  pp.  40,  59-60  (Contrasted 

with  Beethoven). 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12. 19. 
Champlin  and  Apthorp's  Cyc.  of  Music  and  Musicians  (N.  Y., 

1889),  2.  596. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  15.  670 ;  9th  ed.,  17.  8,  96. 
Fillmore's  Hist,  of  Pianoforte  Music  (Chicago,  1883),  pp.  52-58, 

83-85.     See  also  Index. 

Grove's  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians,  2.  379. 
Haweis's  Music  and  Morals,  p.  263. 
Holmes's  Life  of  Mozart. 
Hunt's  Concise  Hist,  of  Music.     See  Index. 
Jahn's  Life  of  Mozart,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  3  vols. 
Letters  of  Mozart,  trans.  (N.  Y.). 
Mathews's  How  to  understand  Music,  V.  i,  Chap.  45. 
Naumann's  Hist,  of  Music,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  30. 
Nohl's  Life  of  Mozart. 
Ritter's  Hist,  of  Music,  2  vols.     See  Index. 
Sarah  Tytler's  Musical  Composers  (Bost.,  1875),  Chap.  3. 
Blackw.,  58.  572. 
Cent.,  21.  203. 
Eel.  M.,  67.  195. 

Ed.  R.,  150.  339  (Am.  ed.,  p.  176).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  143. 579. 
For.  Q.,  4.  404. 
Eraser,  43.  453. 
No.  Am.,  102.  609. 
Penny  M.,  2.  31. 
Westm.,  32.  316-318. 

WAGNER. 

203.  Has   Wagner   made   an   important  improvement  in 

musical  theory  and  practice? 

204.  Is  Wagner's  musical  drama  likely  to  be  "  the  music 

of  the  future  "  / 

205.  Should  Wagner  be  ranked  with  the  great  masters  in 

music  ? 

To  discuss   the  merits  of  Wagner  as  a  musical   com- 
poser, theorist,  and    artist,  it  is  necessary  first  of  all    to 


ART.  375 

gain  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  reform  which  he 
proposes  to  make  in  the  opera.  In  the  musical  drama  he 
would  so  unite  all  the  arts  that  er.ch  should  have  its  true 
place  and  share  in  the  whole  combined  representation.  The 
music  he  would  make  secondary,  as  a  means  of  expression, 
to  the  drama  as  the  end.  His  conception  seems  large  and 
comprehensive ;  and  this  he  has  worked  out  in  thought, 
and  in  the  composition  and  successful  performance  of  his 
musical  dramas.  This  has  been  the  mission  and  work  of 
his  life. 

In  order  correctly  to  estimate  its  value,  it  is  important 
to  determine  its  place  in  the  history  of  musical  develop- 
ment. Is  Wagner  in  the  true  line  of  succession  of  the 
great  masters  who  have  preceded  him  ?  If  he  is,  what  is 
the  relation  of  his  work  to  theirs  ?  In  what  respect,  and 
to  what  degree,  is  it  a  development?  In  short,  how  will 
it,  by  a  true  progress,  carrying  forward  the  past,  make  it 
the  future? 

Instead  of  this,  conceding  the  ability  and  brilliancy  of 
the  man,  is  his  work  destitute  of  real  originality  and  of 
general  practicability,  rather  individual  than  historic,  and 
not  likely  to  make  either  a  profound  or  lasting  impression 
on  musical  theory  and  practice? 

Wagner's  Letters  to  Uhlig,  Fischer,  and  Heine,  trans.  (Lond., 

1890). 

Amiel's  Journal,  trans.  (Lond.,  1889),  pp.  61-62. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  16.  416. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1876,  pp.  572-573  ;  1883,  p.  816. 
Correspondence  of  Wagner  and  Liszt,  trans.  (Lond.,  1888). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  17.  99-100;  24.  313. 

Grove's  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians,  2.  525-529;  4.  346. 
Hueffer's  Richard  Wagner  and  the  Music  of  the  Future  (Lond., 

1874). 

Hullah's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Music,  pp.  253-258. 
Krehbiel's  Studies  in  the  Wagnerian  Drama  (N.  Y.,  1891), 
Mathews's  How  to  understand  Music,  V.  2,  Chap.  3-5. 
Naumann's  Hist,  of  Music,  trans.,  V.  2,  Chap.  38. 
Nohl's  Life  of  Wagner. 
Rockstro's  Hist,  of  Music,  Chap.  37. 


376      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Appleton,  7.  661 ;  11.  431. 

Atlan.,  51.  75. 

Cent,  2.  619. 

Contemp.,  29.  981  (Haweis).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  89.  350. 

Dial  (Chicago),  3.  241. 

Ed.  R.,  143.  141  (Am.  ed.,  p.  72). 

Forum,  12.  78. 

Fortn.,  17.  265  (Hueffer). 

Lippinc.,  18.  60 1. 

Nation,  23.   194,  210,  240,  325;    24.   145;    27.   267;   30.  283; 

35.  109,  131,  153,  373;  36.  165,  230;   43.  134;  46.  368. 
1 9th  Cent.,  13.  434.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  100.  654. 
1 9th  Cent.,  24.  501  (The  Wagner  Bubble  :   Rowbotham).    Same, 

Eel.  M.,  111.  764. 

igth  Cent.,  24.  727  (The  Wagner  Bubble:  a  Reply,  by  Stanford). 
No.  Am.,  116.  217;  124.  53;    129.  107,  238  (Wagner:   The 

Work  and  Mission  of  my  Life). 
O.  and  N.,  3.  489,  613;  5.  243  ;   6.  481. 
Overland,  N.  s.,  1.  331. 
Quar.,  167.  65. 
Scrib  M.,  2.  515. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  9.  81;  12.  361. 
Westm.,  88.  143  (Am.  ed.,  p.  67). 


SCIENCE.  377 


VIII.     SCIENCE. 

AS  art  is  the  general  term  which  includes  the  fine 
arts,  so  science  is  the  general  term  which  com- 
prises the  natural  sciences.  The  general  subject  of 
science,  therefore,  is  the  physical  universe,  with  its 
vast  number  and  variety  of  objects,  including  man  in 
his  physical  nature.  Science  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
laws  by  which  the  universe  is  governed.  It  is,  there- 
fore, a  classification  of  the  beings  and  things  which 
compose  the  universe,  and  thus  a  knowledge  of  them 
in  their  order  and  unity. 

The  universe,  in  its  multiplicity  and  unity,  is  the 
object  for  the  knowing  mind,  and  the  knowledge  of 
it  is  at  once  particular  and  general ;  particular  in  the 
perception  of  its  objects,  and  general  in  the  compre- 
hension of  its  laws.  The  particular  knowledge  is 
included  in  the  general.  Any  object  is  known  in  its 
relation  to  the  whole,  and  by  the  principles  or  laws 
which  make  it  intelligible.  Science  may,  then,  be 
considered  as  a  body  of  knowledge,  concrete  or  par- 
ticular, and  abstract  or  general,  which  from  its  com- 
prehensiveness has  relation  to  the  two  other  general 
forms  of  thought,  philosophy  and  theology. 

This  form  of  knowledge,  in  its  prevalence  and  influ- 
ence, is  distinctively  modern.  The  age,  in  its  intel- 
lectual aspect,  is  especially  scientific.  Trie  leading 
spirit  of  the  age  is  essentially  the  scientific  spirit.  It 
is  the  spirit  of  free  and  honest  inquiry  and  of  careful 
investigation  by  observation  and  experiment,  with  an 
aim  to  know  the  exact  truth  and  the  whole  truth. 

The  study  of  nature,  and  the  search  for  knowledge 
in  such  a  spirit,  has  led  to  the  most  astounding  re- 


378      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

suits.  It  has  transformed  the  world,  and  started  it 
on  a  new  and  swift  career  of  progress.  It  has  un- 
veiled the  secrets  of  nature,  and  made  man  its 
master.  It  has  thus  vastly  increased  his  power,  by 
subjecting  to  his  will  the  latent  forces  of  nature. 
The  useful  arts,  and  the  numberless  inventions  which 
have  contributed  so  much  to  modern  progress,  show 
science  on  its  practical  side.  For  science  is  not  mere 
knowledge,  but  has  its  practical  end  in  the  promo- 
tion of  human  welfare.  This  is  not,  indeed,  its  only 
end,  for  it  has  a  higher  use  in  the  culture  of  the 
mind ;  but  the  lower  use  itself  is  its  full  justification, 
and  is  promotive  of  the  higher  use. 

Science  is  thus,  in  its  spirit,  aim,  end,  and  in- 
fluence, eminently  progressive.  Its  own  wonderful 
progress  in  modern  times  is  at  once  the  proof  and  the 
cause  of  general  human  progress.  The  progress  of 
science  is  intellectual;  the  progress  it  promotes  is 
material;  and  these  both  conspire  to  aid  moral 
progress.  In  science,  therefore,  is  found  one  of  the 
chief  elements  and  factors  of  modern  progress. 

Yet  science  is  not  the  only  certain  knowledge,  or 
even  the  highest.  It  touches,  indeed,  philosophy 
and  theology,  and  in  some  respects  corrects  and 
modifies,  but  does  not  supersede  them.  Yet  the 
scientific  spirit  and  method  have  had  a  profound 
and  wholesome  influence  on  both  of  these  higher 
forms  of  knowledge. 

As  the  production  of  the  human  mind  in  its  rela- 
tion to  nature,  science  partakes  of  the  imperfections 
of  all  human  knowledge.  It  is  at  best  but  an  ap- 
proximation to  absolute  knowledge.  Like  other 
forms  of  knowledge,  it  is  beset  with  uncertainties, 
mixed  with  error,  and  subject  to  change.  Its  right- 
ful authority  in  its  own  province  is  derived  from  its 
actual  conformity  to  nature  and  to  reason. 


SCIENCE,  379 

BACON  AND   NEWTON. 

206.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Bacon  contributed  more  to  the 
progress  of  physical  science  than  the  discoveries  of 
Newton  ? 

The  service  of  Bacon  and  Newton,  respectively,  to  sci- 
ence is  as  different  as  their  minds.  Bacon  aroused  and 
fixed  the  scientific  spirit ;  gave  it  definiteness,  character, 
and  importance ;  and  sketched  the  general  outline  which 
should  be  its  vindication  to  the  right  of  a  high  place  in 
the  domain  of  knowledge. 

Newton,  to  a  wonderful  degree,  built  up  science  itself, 
developed  and  added  to  its  principles,  and  greatly  en- 
larged it,  making  it  deeper,  higher,  wider.  Bacon's  work 
was  more  general,  and  hence  is  less  tangible  and  indis- 
putable; Newton's,  becoming  at  once  a  part  of  science 
itself,  is  more  definite  and  calculable.  The  work  of  both 
was  indispensable,  and  of  the  highest  importance. 

BACON. 

Bacon's  service  to  science  was  rendered  in  a  general  or 
philosophical  way.  Of  the  scientific  spirit  he  was  fully  pos- 
sessed, and  this  made  him  a  prophet  of  the  new  or  sci- 
entific era.  He  felt  an  inward  and  urgent  call  to  what 
was  the  real  and  enduring  work  of  his  life :  to  renovate 
knowledge,  to  point  out  the  true  road  to  it,  to  restore  its 
definiteness  and  certainty,  and  to  give  it  a  practical  turn 
which  should  make  it  promotive  of  human  welfare.  The 
principle  of  induction  he  raised  to  its  supreme  height  as 
the  fundamental  principle  of  the  scientific  method.  He 
thus  gave  it  precedence  in  the  discovery  of  general  axioms, 
making  deduction  secondary.  He  made  induction  to  con- 
sist, not  in  bare  enumeration  or  multiplication,  but  in  selec- 
tion and  exclusion.  Thus,  though  not  the  discoverer  of 
induction,  he  greatly  improved  it,  put  it  into  its  place,  and 
by  showing  its  application  in  the  discovery  of  scientific 


380      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

truth  added  much  to  its  value ;  in  short,  raised  it  to  an 
importance  as  a  universal  working  principle  which  it  had 
never  before  possessed.  This  he  did  in  general  for  induc- 
tion, despite  the  fact  that  in  some  particulars  he  was 
wrong. 

His  mind  was  capacious,  and  he  sought  to  compass  all 
knowledge ;  yet  he  viewed  all  knowledge  with  a  scientific 
spirit,  and  sought  to  bring  it  under  the  scientific  method. 
He  directed  attention  to  nature,  and  encouraged  its  com- 
prehensive, thorough,  and  exact  study. 

Some  of  the  important  scientific  discoveries  of  his  own 
age,  indeed,  he  did  not  accept.  Yet  this  shows,  not  that 
he  was  not  in  the  true  path  of  progress,  and  did  not  in  his 
way  contribute  much  to  true  progress,  but  that  his  mind  was 
so  absorbed  with  general  principles  that  in  some  cases  he 
failed  truly  to  apprehend  particulars. 

Despite  his  shortcomings  and  errors  Bacon  may,  then,  be 
regarded  as  the  leader  in  the  decisive  work  accomplished 
in  the  incipient  stage  of  the  scientific  movement. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  89. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  203-204. 

Bain's  Logic  (N.  Y.,  1880),  p.  687. 

Brewster:  i.  Life  of  Newton,  i  vol.,  pp.  296-302. 

2.  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Discoveries  of 
Newton,  2  vols.,  2.  400-406  (Adverse).  Ans., 
Ed.  R.,  56.  29-37. 

Campbell's  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  Eng.,  3.  118-120. 
Church's  Bacon  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  8. 
Cooke's  Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp.  30-32. 
Draper's   Intellectual    Development  of    Europe,   pp.   515-517 

(Adverse). 

Encyc.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  3.  211-217. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  sec.  249-250,  pp.  668-684. 
Fowler  :  i.  Bacon  (Eng.  Philosophers  S.),  esp.  Chap.  6. 

2.  Edition  of  the  Novum  Organum,  Introd. 
Green:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  488-492. 
2.  Short  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  pp. 

592-595- 

Hallam's  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe  (Harper's  ed.),  2.  69. 
Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  4.  525. 


SCIENCE.  381 

Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  I  vol.,  Pt.  2,  ist  Epoch, 

p.  298. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  3.  433-458. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  3.  435.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  65.  340  (Am.  ed., 

p.  178. 
Mackintosh's   Misc.  Essays  (Philad.,  p.    17).      Same,  Ed.  R., 

27.  180-196. 

Mill's  Logic.     See  Index. 

J.  D.  Morell's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.  (Am.  ed.),  pp.  63-71. 
Thos.  Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  and  Sci.  (Lond.,  1827),  Pt.  4, 

Chap.  4,  sec.  3-5,  p.  479. 

Morris's  Brit.  Thoughts  and  Thinkers,  Chap.  5,  pp.  128-140. 
Muller's  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop  (N.  Y.),  3.  217. 
Playfair's  Works  (Edin.,   1822),  2.    116-134.      Same,   Encyc. 

Brit.,  8th  ed.,  1.  584-590. 
Porter's  Human  Intellect,  sec.  500,  p.  494. 
Spedding  :   i.  Account  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Bacon  (Bost., 
1878),  2.  650-653. 

2.  Edition  of  Bacon's  Works  (N.  Y.,  1869),  15  vols. 

V.  i,  Gen.  Pref.  to  Philos   Works. 

3.  Evenings  with  a  Reviewer,  1.  296-320. 
Stewart's  Elements  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  2.  231- 

240  (Collected  Works,  Edin.,  V.  3). 
Whipple's  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,  p.  306.     Same,  Atlan., 

22.  573- 

Blackw.,  93.  497-499. 
Chr.  Exam.,  72.  175-181. 
Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  4.  538-551. 
Ed.  R.,  106.  300-322  (Am.  ed.,  p.  157-168). 
Meth.  Q.,  7.  22. 
Nat.  Q.,  2.  20-27. 
New  Eng.,  10.  368-373. 
No.  Am.,  56.  69-77. 


NEWTON. 

Newton's  place  is  at  the  head  of  modern  science.  The 
very  great  importance  of  his  contributions  to  science  is 
unquestionable.  In  him  was  found  a  remarkable  com- 
bination of  high  mathematical  and  scientific  genius.  He 
exhibits,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  best  characteristics  of 
the  scientific  mind  :  an  absorbing  love  of  knowledge  for 


382       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

its  own  sake ;  a  wonderful  insight  which  enabled  him  to 
discern  the  general  principles  and  laws  requisite  to  a  sci- 
ence of  nature ;  a  habit  of  laborious,  patient,  and  thorough 
investigation ;  and  the  strict  testing  of  results  by  a  careful 
verification. 

What  was  thus  gained  for  science  by  the  intense  and 
life-long  labor  of  one  great  mind  is  of  imperishable  value, 
and  constitutes  a  much  larger  and  more  important  part  of 
the  general  body  of  science  than  the  discoveries  of  any 
other  single  mind.  The  importance  of  Newton's  scientific 
discoveries  becomes  at  once  obvious  on  a  consideration  of 
their  nature  and  relative  position  among  scientific  truths. 
They  transform  and  dignify  science,  making  it  a  more  in- 
telligible and  adequate  representation  of  the  physical  uni- 
verse. Of  these  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  by  its  simple 
grandeur  greatly  ennobles  science,  is  perhaps  the  most  con- 
spicuous example. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1414. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12.  346. 

M.  Biot's  Life  of  Newton,  trans,  of,  in  Lives  of  Eminent  Per- 
sons.    Library  of  Useful  Knowledge  (Lond.,  1833). 

Brewster:  i.  Life  of  Newton,  i  vol. 

2.  Memorials  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Discoveries 
of  Newton,  2  vols. 

Buckley's  Short  Hist,  of  Nat.  Sci.     See  Index. 

Chalmers's  Astronomical  Discourses,  Disc.  2  (The  Modesty  of 
true  Science). 

Cooke's  Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp.  43-45, 
78-92. 

Davy's  Works  (Lond.,  1840),  7.  124. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  526-529. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed.,  17.  438.     See  also  Index. 

Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  3.  332. 

Hume's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  6.  374. 

Jevons's  Principles  of  Science.     See  Index. 

Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism  (Eng.  trans.),  1.  306-313. 

Macaulay's  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.).  1.  310.     See  Index. 

Thos.  Morell's  Hist-  of  Philos.  and  Sci.,  pp.  350,  382,  404,  438, 
456. 

Playfair's  Works  (Edin,  1822),  2.  269-289,  327-328,  357-386, 


SCIENCE.  383 

402-445.      Same,   Encyc.   Brit.,  8th  ed.,  1.  633-643,  652, 
661-670,  675-688. 
Whewell's  Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  V.  I,  Bk.  7,  Chap. 

T   | 

Brit.  Q.,  22.  317.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  47.  401. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  4.  109. 

Ed.  R.,  56.  i;  78.  402  (Am.  ed.,  p.  215);  103.  499  (Am.  ed., 

p.  255).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  49.  641. 
For.  Q.,  12.  i. 
Fraser,  6.  351. 
Liv.  Age,  59.  374. 

No.  Brit,  23.  307  (Am.  ed.,  p.  167).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  36.  717. 
Quar.,  110.  401  (Am.  ed.,  p.  208).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  72.  627. 
Westm.,  64.  557  (Am.  ed.,  p.  291). 


DARWIN  AND  AGASSIZ. 

207.  Was  Darwin  a  greater  scientist  than  Agassiz? 

208.  Did  Darwin  contribute  as  much  to  the  advancement 

of  science  as  Newton  ? 

Darwin  and  Agassiz  are  among  the  best  examples  of  the 
spirit,  aim,  and  work  of  the  scientific  class.  Each  gave 
himself  and  his  life  wholly  to  science.  Each  became  thus 
identified  with  science,  and  science  with  each.  And  with 
each  the  life  was  one  of  steady  and  patient  work,  high  in 
aim  and  fruitful  in  results.  Both  made  deep  and  wide  re- 
searches in  nature,  with  the  guiding  clue  of  principle ;  which 
they  confirmed  and  illustrated  by  the  collection  and  applica- 
tion of  innumerable  facts. 

Darwin,  by  his  theory,  has  doubtless  had  the  wider  influ- 
ence ;  but  how  much  others,  and  even  Agassiz  himself,  led 
the  way  to  this,  may  be  a  matter  for  inquiry.  Its  real  value 
and  practical  application  to  science  may  also  be  considered. 
Darwin,  winning  the  triumph  of  his  theory,  was  borne  to 
fame  by  the  changed  current  of  thought ;  while  to  Agassiz 
is  awarded  the  admiration  and  honor  due  to  a  noble  life 
spent  in  the  ardent  pursuit  and  unselfish  promotion  of 
science. 


384     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

DARWIN. 

Darwin  owes  his  great  fame  to  the  wide  currency  he  has 
given  to  the  theory  of  evolution.  The  immense  influence 
which  this  theory  has  had  on  current  thought  in  general, 
has  proceeded  from  him  as  its  chief  original  source.  Of 
the  general  conception  he  is,  indeed,  far  from  being  the 
original  author ;  but  it  was  he  more  than  any  other  who,  by 
long  thought  and  an  accumulated  array  of  facts,  gave  it  so 
great  influence  as  an  hypothesis  on  scientific  thought.  This 
he  did  by  the  theory  of  natural  selection,  which  seemed  to 
provide  for  it  an  adequate  natural  cause,  and  served  to  con- 
nect it  definitely  and  closely  with  science. 

This  was  his  life-work.  His  thought  and  effort  were 
concentrated  on  this  single  point.  The  general  conception 
of  evolution  seems  to  have  found  an  early  lodgment  in  his 
mind,  and  to  have  grown  with  his  growth.  Thenceforth  all 
his  investigations  and  all  his  knowledge  were  made  to  bear 
on  the  development  and  establishment  of  his  thought.  The 
event  far  exceeded  his  most  cherished  hopes.  The  time 
was  propitious,  and  all  things  conspired  to  make  sure  the 
success  of  the  new  thought.  Despite  all  opposition,  its  tri- 
umph was  quick  and  easy,  and  it  has  already  become  one  of 
the  chief  factors  of  modem  thought. 

Darwin  had  the  true  scientific  spirit,  yet  he  used  it  for 
the  development  and  establishment  of  a  theory  properly 
philosophical.  In  applying  this  theory  to  science  he  made 
science  philosophical,  giving  it  a  necessary  coherence,  pro- 
gress, and  unity.  So  far  as  his  own  thought  goes,  his  phi- 
losophy of  science  is  naturalistic,  and  not  theistic.  But  his 
thought  pressed  on  to  an  expansion  much  wider  than  he 
himself  carried  it,  so  as  far  to  overpass  the  limits  of 
science. 

Darwin,  then,  affords  a  conspicuous  and  admirable  ex- 
ample of  the  power  of  a  great  thought,  as  seen  first  in  the 
mind  of  the  original  thinker,  and  afterward  in  the  world  of 
thought. 


SCIENCE.  385 

The  Life  and  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin,  ed.  by  his  Son  (N.  Y., 

1887),  2  vols. 

Grant  Allen's  Charles  Darwin. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  5.  697. 
Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1882,  p.  183. 

Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.  (Lond.  and  Edin.,  1889).  3.  683. 
Kirk's  Sup.  to  Allibone's  Diet,  of  Eng.  Lit.  (Philad.,  1891),  1.448. 
Am.  Natural.,  8.  473. 
Appleton,  3.  439. 
Atlan.,  49.  835  (Fiske) ;   61.  560. 
Bib.  Sac.,  45.  366. 
Blackvv.,  143.  105. 

Cent,  3.  420  (The  Debt,  of  Sci.  to  Darwin:  Wallace). 
Contemp.,  52.  757.     Same,  Eel.  JVI.,110.  219.    Same,  Liv.Age, 

176.  3. 

Dial  (Chicago),  3.  2. 
Eel.  M.,  76.  757. 
Ed.  R.,  167.  407. 
Ev.  Sat,  10.  347. 

Mod.  R.,  3.  500  (Life  Work  of:   W.  B.  Carpenter). 
Nation,  34.  354  (Fiske);  45.  399,  420. 
Nature,  10.  79.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  5.  475. 
Nature,  25.  597  (Huxley) ;   26.  49,  73,  97,  145,  169,  533. 
New  Eng.,  48.  235. 
N.  Princ.,  5.  280. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  2.  497;  21.  260. 
Quar.,  166.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  176.  451. 
Unita.  R.,  29.  385. 
Westm.,  118.  85  ;  128.  1136. 

AGASSIZ. 

To  his  entire  devotion  to  science  Agassiz  brought  genius 
and  force.  In  his  large  mind  he  united  the  particular  and 
the  general.  His  accumulated  treasure  of  facts  he  classified 
and  made  luminous  by  general  principles.  Facts  were  the 
basis  and  the  substance  of  his  knowledge,  while  in  suitable 
principles  he  found  their  explanation.  Thus  of  science  he 
made  a  philosophy.  He  held  it  neither  as  separate,  nor  as 
the  whole  of  knowledge,  but  as  one  with  all  knowledge. 

Possessed  of  a  spiritual  mind,  science  to  him  had  a  spirit- 
ual element.  He  saw  mind,  a  Divine  Mind,  in  nature.  Its 

25 


386      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

laws  were  to  him  the  thoughts  of  God.  In  this  his  concep- 
tion was  higher  and  more  complete  than  that  of  Darwin. 
And  this  he  got,  not  from  theology,  but  from  science.  In 
all  nature  he  found  the  plain  mark  of  a  supreme  intel- 
ligence. This  is  the  secret  of  his  rejection  of  the  theory 
of  natural  evolution.  He  saw  an  order  in  nature,  but  held 
that  it  was  in  accordance  with  a  divine  plan.  He  traced 
the  plan  in  the  order ;  he  joined  the  order  with  the  plan  as 
its  necessary  sequence. 

The  facts  appeared  to  him  against  evolution.  They 
showed  him  "  the  permanence  of  type,"  and  an  unbridged 
chasm  between  the  several  species  which  forbade  the 
assumption  of  the  derivation  of  a  higher  species  from  a 
lower.  Beside,  the  structural  order  and  the  time  order  he 
found  did  not  always  coincide,  the  higher  order  in  some 
cases  appearing  much  before  the  lower.  He  declared  that 
the  advocates  of  evolution  had  produced  no  new  facts; 
they  had  simply  put  upon  those  already  known  their  own 
interpretation. 

Agassiz  pursued  his  scientific  investigations  with  all  the 
enthusiasm  of  his  ardent  nature,  and  in  many  others  he  ex- 
cited a  like  enthusiasm.  His  investigations  were  original, 
—  a  search  into  nature  itself;  so  that  he  added  to  science 
many  important  original  contributions.  His  real  greatness 
as  a  man  and  as  a  scientist  is  unquestionable  ;  of  his  com- 
parative greatness  there  may  be  different  estimates. 

Louis  Agassiz :  his  Life  and  Correspondence,  ed.  by  Elizabeth 
Gary  Agassiz  (Bost,  1887),  2  vols. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  1.  173. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1873,  p.  8. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  34. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  1.  274. 

Le  Conte's  Evolution  and  its  Relation  to  Religious  Thought 
(N.  Y.,  1889),  Pt.  i,  Chap.  2  (The  Relation  of  Louis  Agassiz 
to  the  Theory  of  Evolution).  Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  32.  17 

Amer.,  11.  71  (Life-work  of). 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  28.  88 1  (As  a  Teacher). 

And.  R.,  5.  38  (Asa  Gray). 

Appleton,  3.  492;  19.  573. 


SCIENCE.  387 

Atlan.,  33.   92  (Evolution  and  the  Permanence  of  Type,  by 

Agassiz);  33.  221 ;  33.  586  (Poem  by  Lowell);  56.  848. 
Chr.  Exam.,  49.  9;  64.  56. 
Eel.  M.,  23.  13. 
Harper,  59.  97  (Whipple). 
Lit.  W.  (Bost),  16.  368. 

Lond.  Q.,  66.  205.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  170,  387. 
Meth.  R.,  46.  405  (Agassiz  and  his  Work). 
Nation,  17.  404. 
Nat.  Q.,  28.  234. 
Nature,  6.  509  ;   19.  573. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  4.  495,  608. 
Science,  6.  330. 

(For  references  on  Newton,  see  page  382.) 


THE  ATOMIC  THEORY. 

209.   Does  the  Atomic  Theory  find  In  science  sufficient  con- 
firmation to  establish  its  validity  ? 

The  Atomic  Theory,  known  first  as  the  corner-stone  of 
a  system  of  ancient  materialistic  philosophy,  has  in  modem 
times  found  a  practical  application  in  natural  science,  espe- 
cially in  chemistry.  Has  the  speculation  become  thereby 
converted  into  a  verity  ?  Has  the  philosophy  been  trans- 
formed into  actual  science? 

What  is  the  modern  theory  as  compared  with  the  an- 
cient ?  What  is  the  real  scientific  importance  of  the 
modern  theory?  Is  it  properly  a  part  of  science?  Is  it 
necessary  to  science  ?  Is  it  likely  to  become  a  permanent 
element  of  science  ?  Is  it  capable  of  demonstration,  or  of 
scientific  verification?  In  short,  has  its  adoption  and  use 
by  science  conferred  upon  it  the  perpetuity  and  importance 
of  science  itself? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  85. 

Clifford's  Lectures  and  Essays  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1886),  p.  no. 

Cooke:  i.  The  New  Chemistry  (Internal.  Sci.  S.),  Lect.  4. 

2.  Principles  of  Chem.  Philos.,  rev.  ed.,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  4. 

3.  The  Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith, 

pp.  102-109,  235-242. 


388      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  3.  36. 

Herschell's  Familiar  Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects,  Chap.  u. 

Same,  Fortn.  1.  81. 
Lange's  Hist  of  Materialism,  V.  I,  Chap,  i;  V.  2,  Bk.  2,  sec.  2, 

Chap.  2. 
Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  2d   Epoch, 

Chap,  i,  sec.  4  (Democritus). 
Lucretius  on  the  Nature  of  Things,  Munro's  trans. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  3d  ed.  (1888),  Bk.  i,  Chap.  2. 
Masson's  Atomic  Theory  of  Lucretius,  as  contrasted  with  Mod- 
ern Doctrines  of  Atoms  and  Evolution. 
Remsen's  Theoretical  Chemistry,  Pt.  I. 
Hitter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  i,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  2 ;    V.  3,  pp. 

429-436. 

Roscoe  and  Schorlemmer's  Chemistry,  1.  33-37. 
Stallo's  Concepts  and  Theories  of  Mod.  Physics,  Chap.  7. 
Wurtz's  Atomic  Theory  (Internat.  Sci.  S.). 
All  the  Year,  15.  235.     Same,  Ev.  Sat.,  1.  387. 
Brit.  Q.,  62.  336  (Am.  ed.,  p.  162).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  45.  194. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  127.  387. 
Ed.  R.,  89.  69-70  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  36-37) ;  108.  95-101  (Am.  ed., 

pp.  49-52). 
Nature,  1.  44;  6.  171  ;   8.  8l  ;   10.  69,  89,  345;  16.  293;    36. 

417. 

No.  Brit.,  48.  211. 
Quar.,  96.  43  (Am.  ed.,  p.  24), 
Westm.,  59.  167  (Am.  ed.,  p.  87).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  29.  I. 


THE   NEBULAR   HYPOTHESIS. 

210.  Does  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  furnish  the  best  natural 

solution  of  the  origin  of  the  planetary  and  stellar 
worlds  ? 

211.  Is  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  likely  to  win  an  established 

place  in  science  ? 

The  Nebular  Hypothesis  belongs  rather  to  speculative 
than  to  practical  science.  It  is  an  example  of  the  philos- 
ophy inherent  in  science  as  a  product  of  the  reason.  It 
is  obviously  legitimate  for  science  to  reduce,  as  it  can  by 
analysis  and  in  thought,  all  things  to  their  elements. 


SCIENCE.  389 

The  Nebular  Hypothesis  is  an  attempt  to  formulate  the 
process  by  which  the  world  may  have  been  evolved  from 
diffused  nebulous  matter.  An  hypothesis  is  a  conjecture  or 
venture,  which,  having  been  suggested  by  a  few  facts,  may 
afterward  be  confirmed  by  more. 

What,  then,  is  the  original  basis  of  fact  for  this  hypothe- 
sis ?  And  what,  thus  far,  has  been  its  confirmation  ?  How 
far  is  it,  and  how  far  is  it  not,  in  harmony  with  known 
facts?  How  adequate  and  satisfactory  is  it  as  an  explana- 
tion of  the  origin  of  worlds  ?  Absolute  exactness  cannot 
be  claimed  for  it.  Yet  what  is  the  degree  of  its  proba- 
bility? And  what  is  its  apparent  approximation  to  reality? 
It  is  the  first  chapter  in  the  general  philosophy  of  evolution, 
which  in  science  appears  more  particularly  in  theories  of 
the  origin  of  species. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12.  201. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  17.  310. 

Fiske's  Cosmic  Philosophy,  V.  I,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  5. 

Half-Hour  Recreations  in  Pop.  Sci.,  1st  S.,  p.  255  (Winchell). 

Helmholtz's  Pop.  Sci.  Lectures  (N.Y.),  2d  S.,  Lect.  4. 

Newcomb's  Pop.  Astronomy,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  3. 

Newcomb  and  Holden's  Astronomy  (Am.  Science  S.),  6th  ed., 

Pt.  3,  Chap.  8. 

Nichol's  Views  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Heavens. 
Norton's  Astronomy,  6th  ed.,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  20. 
Mrs.   Sargent's    Sketches  and   Reminiscences  of  the  Radical 

Club,  Chap.  35,  p.  243  (Prof.  Peirce). 
Spencer's  Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress  (N.  Y.),  Ess.  6. 

Same,  in  substance,  Westm.,  70.  185  (Am.  ed.,  p.  104). 
Stallo's  Concepts  and  Theories  of  Mod.   Physics,   Chap.    15, 

P-  277. 
Winchell:  I.  Sketches  of  Creation,  Chap.  4. 

2.  World  Life,  or  Comparative  Geology. 

Wright's  Philosophical  Discussions,  p.  i.     Same,  No.  Am.  99.  I. 
Young's  Text-book  of  Gen.  Astronomy.  Chap.  21,  art.  905-913. 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  80.  161 ;   88.  344;   89.  25;   102.  155. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  2.  529. 
Meth.  Q.,  37.  127. 
No.  Am.,  104.  618. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  2.  650;  23.  239. 
Sup.  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  369. 
Pop.  Sci.  R.,  14.  320.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  84.  346. 


3QO     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


EVOLUTION. 

212.  Has  the  organic  world  been  developed  from  primordial 

germs  by  natural  forces  ? 

213.  Is  the  evidence  sufficient  to  prove  the  origin  of  species 

by  natural  evolution  ? 

214.  Is  the  theory  of  evolution   an   established    truth   of 

science  ? 

The  successful  introduction  of  the  theory  of  evolution 
into  science  by  Darwin  has  made  a  profound  impression 
both  on  scientific  and  general  thought.  Entertained  by 
him  as  an  hypothesis,  he  sought  diligently,  through  years 
of  patient  observation  and  careful  experiment,  its  verifi- 
cation in  well  attested  facts.  Assuming  it  as  the  solution 
of  the  origin  of  species,  formulating  the  theory  of  natural 
selection  as  the  rationale  of  its  process,  and  fortifying  his 
position  by  an  array  of  facts  presented  in  a  scientific  spirit, 
he  seemed  to  many  to  go  far  toward  showing  that  what 
had  been  considered  as  but  a  barren  speculation  was  really 
a  scientific  principle  of  the  first  importance.  Placed  thus 
on  a  scientific  basis,  and  receiving  some  measure  of  the 
character  and  authority  of  science,  it  has  conquered  preju- 
dice, and  won  a  large  success. 

But  its  scientific  importance  is  not  the  whole  secret  of 
its  success.  It  is  a  philosophy  more  than  it  is  science,  and 
in  science  it  is  still  philosophy.  It  has  the  largeness  and 
the  universality  of  application  of  philosophy.  Like  induc- 
tion, which  is  the  root  of  science,  it  finds  place  in  every 
branch  of  knowledge.  It  is  the  philosophy  of  origin,  of 
movement,  of  becoming.  It  brings  all  things,  by  a  genetic 
relation,  into  order  and  unity.  It  breaks  down  the  barrier 
of  species,  and,  merging  all  differences  into  an  essential 
likeness,  brings  the  whole  universe  of  beings  and  things 
into  kinship.  The  thought  is  a  grand  one,  and  there  is 
truth  in  it.  All  things  have  a  relation,  but  is  it  genetic  ? 
That  is  the  point  to  be  proved. 


SCIENCE.  391 

The  theory  of  evolution  would  supersede  the  supernatural 
by  the  natural,  creation  by  development.  It  is,  indeed,  the 
true  function  of  science  to  find  for  all  things  and  for  all 
phenomena,  so  far  as  it  can  be  done,  natural  causes ;  but 
can  it  always  be  done?  Is  nature  self-sufficient,  and  the 
all?  Can  the  beginning  of  life  and  of  mind  be  accounted 
for  by  causes  within  nature  ?  Are  there  gaps,  such  as  that 
between  the  inorganic  and  the  organic,  which  are  not 
bridged  by  the  mere  evolution  of  the  natural?  Are  life 
and  mind,  in  their  origin,  additions  requiring  creative  or 
supernatural  power  ? 

Has  evolution  been  successful  in  demonstrating  the  origin 
of  species  by  the  abolition  of  species  ?  Whatever  the  diffi- 
culty of  accurately  defining  the  limits  of  species,  has  it  been 
made  certain  that  the  conception  is  essentially  false  to  the 
facts?  What  shall  be  said  of  the  infertility  of  hybrids  ? 
And  what  of  the  lack  of  intermediary  links,  which,  by  the 
theory,  should  connect  species,  merging  them  in  one  ad- 
vancing line?  If  evolution  be  a  law  of  nature,  universal 
and  perpetual,  why  should  not  the  process,  in  its  minute 
gradations,  be,  in  the  present  as  well  as  in  the  past,  plain 
to  all?  It  is  here  that  speculation  must  supplement  evi- 
dence, yet  without  its  certainty. 

That  evolution,  in  some  form,  has  no  small  place  in 
nature  is  plain ;  but  does  not  this  theory  give  it  too  large 
a  place,  and  set  it  to  the  solution  of  problems  too  hard  for 
science  ?  As  a  theory,  it  has  undoubtedly  done  for  science 
and  for  general  thought  an  important  service,  by  bringing 
into  clearer  light  that  orderly  progress,  close  relation,  and 
essential  unity  of  all  things  which  really  exist. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  7.  10. 

Cleland's  Evolution,  Expression,  and  Sensation. 
Conn's  Evolution  of  To-day. 

Cooke's  Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp.  242-253. 
Cope's  Origin  of  the  Fittest.     Rev.  of,  Dial  (Chicago),  7.  258. 
Darwin:  i.  The  Origin  of  Species. 

2.  The  Descent  of  Man,  Pt.  2. 


392       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Darwin  :  3.  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domes- 
tication. 
4.  Life  and  Letters  of,  V.  i,  Chap.  10-14;  V.  2,  Chap, 

1-4. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8.  744. 
Fiske  :  i.  Cosmic  Philos.,  V.  I  and  2,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  9,  10. 

2.  Darwinism,  and   Other  Essays  (Lond.  and  N.  Y., 

1879),  Ess.  1-4. 

Gray's  Darwiniana,  art.  i,  4,  6,  12. 
Geikie's  Textbook  of  Geology,  pp.  623-626. 
Haeckel's  Hist,  of  Creation,  Chap,  i,  2,  6,  7,  n,  24. 
Half-Hours  with  Mod.  Scientists,  1.  147. 
Henslow's  Evolution  and  Religion,  Pt.  I. 
Huxley :   i.  Origin  of  Species. 

2.  Lay  Sermons,  pp.  255,  299. 

3.  Critiques  and  Addresses,  pp.  181,  218. 

4.  Am.  Addresses. 
Johnson's  Univ.  Cyc.,  1.  1670. 

Le  Conte  :  i.  Elements  of  Geology,  p.  396.     See  Index. 

2.  Evolution  and  its  Relation  to  Religious  Thought, 

Lewes's  Studies  in  Animal  Life,  Chap.  4,  5. 
Lyell:  i.  Principles  of  Geology,  nth  ed.,  Chap.  34-37. 
2.  The  Antiquity  of  Man,  4th  ed.,  Chap.  20-22. 
3-  Life  and  Letters,  V.  2.     See  Index,  Darwin. 
MacQueary's   Evolution  of    Man  and    Christianity,    new   ed 

(N.Y.,  1891),  Pt.   i,  Chap.  2. 
C.  Lloyd  Morgan's  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence  (Bost,  1891), 

Chap.  4>  6. 

Packard's  Zoology,  pp.  10-12,  672-674. 
Romanes,  The  Darwinian  Theory  (Chicago,  1892). 
Schmidt's  Doctrine  of  Descent  and  Darwinism 
Spencer:   i.  Biology,  V.  i.,  Pt.  3. 

2-  "lustrations  of  Universal  Progress,  Chap.  9. 
Wallace:    i.    Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Nat.  Selection 

Rev.  of,  Nation,  10.  422. 
2.    Darwinism  (Lond.,  1889). 
Wmchell:  i.  The  Doctrine  of  Evolution. 

Sparks  fr°m  a  Geol°gist's  Hammer,  p.  332 

f11*^ pp- 
•  fcS 

Am.  J.  Sci.,  80.  i. 


SCIENCE.  393 

Atlan.,  6.  109,  229,  406;  18.  415  ;   49.  835. 

Contemp.,  47.  841 ;   53.  839. 

Fortn.,  9.  353,  611;  10.  61,  492;  32.  492.     Same,  Pop.  Sci. 

Mo.,  16.  101. 
Fortn.,  36.  739.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  98.  145  (Scient.  Evidence  of 

Evolution:  Romanes). 
Independent   (N.Y.),  1873,  p.   328.       1880,   Feb.  5,  p.  10 ; 

Feb.  12,  p.  9;  May  27,  p.  2. 
Nation,  12.  199;  17.  258. 

Nature,  3.  49 ;  22.  i .     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  17.  337. 
Nature,  23.  203,  227  (Huxley), 
igth  Cent.,  7.  93  (Wallace).    19.  570,  749;    same,   Pop.   Sci. 

Mo.,  28.  754.     29.  54,  192. 
No.  Am.,  110.  284. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  2.  1 10. 
Westm.,  73.  541  (Am.  ed.,  p.  295).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  50.  331. 

Same,  Huxley's  Lay  Sermons,  p.  255. 

NEGATIVE. 

Agassiz:  I.  Contributions  to  the  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  i, 
Pt.  i,  Chap.  I  (Essay  on  Classification). 

2.  Life  and  Correspondence,  2.  777-781. 

3.  Atlan.,  33.  92. 
Argyll's  Reign  of  Law,  Chap.  5. 
Birks's  Mod.  Physical  Fatalism,  p.  290. 
Bowen :  i.  Gleanings  from  a  Lit.  Life,  p.  199. 

2.  Ibid.,  p.  351.     Same,  No.  Am.,  129.  447. 

3.  No.  Am.,  90.  474. 
Cowles's  Pentateuch,  Chap.  2. 
Curtis's  Creation  or  Evolution. 

Dana:   i.  Am.  J.  Sci.,  74.  305.     Same,  Bib.  Sac.,  18.  858. 
2.  Manual  of  Geology,  2d  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1874),  P-  757- 
Dawson:  i.  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,  Chap.  14.    See  Index. 

2.  The  Origin  of  the  World,  App.  A,  B,  C. 

3.  Chain  of  Life  in  Geological  Time. 

4.  Facts  and  Fancies  of  Mod.  Sci.,  Lect  3. 

5.  Princ.,  N.  s.,  1.  662. 

6.  Mod.  Sci.  in  Bible  Lands  (N.  Y.,  1889),  pp.  140-147. 
Hopkins:  i.  Outline  Study  of  Man,  pp.  13-25. 

2.  Christ  and  Mod.  Thought.     Bost.  Monday  Lect.. 

1 880-8 1,  pp.  87-100. 

Johnson's  Univ.  Cyc.,  art.  Darwinism,  1.  1262  (J.  H.  Seelye). 
Pressensd's  Study  of  Origins,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  4,  sec.  i,  p.  180. 


394      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Quatrefages,  Human  Species  (Internat.  Scient.  S.)>  Chap.  10. 

Reusch's  Nature  and  the  Bible,  Chap.  25-27. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  20.  349  (July,  1871). 

Am.  Theo.  R.,  2.  326;  4.  680. 

Bapt.  Q.,  7.  69,  204. 

Bib.  Sac.,  20.  489;  29.  240;   32.  512,  517-519- 

Brit.  Q.,  31.  398.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  50.  331. 

Chr.  Exam.,  68.  449. 

Contemp.,  33.  540.     37.  713;   same,  Eel.  M.,  95.  i. 

Ed.  R.,  111.  487  (Am.  ed.,  p.  252).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  66.  3. 

Ed.  R.,  150.  219  (Am.  ed.,  p.  113). 

Independent  (N.  Y.),  1876,  Sept.  28,  p.  16;  1880,  Jan.  8,  p.  2. 

Meth.  Q.,  21.  605. 

New  Eng.,  26.  603. 

I9th  Cent.,  22.  745;  23.  142. 

No.  Am.,  91.  528. 

No.  Brit,  32.  455  (Am.  ed.,  p.  245) ;  46.  277  (Am.  ed.,  p.  149). 

O.  and  N.,  5.  554~559- 

Presb.  R.,  1.  611. 

Quar.,  108.  225  (Am.  ed.,  p.  118).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  66.  515. 

THE   DESCENT  OF   MAN. 

215.   Is  man  descended,  by  process  of  evolution,  from  some 
lower  animal? 

This  question  belongs  to  the  general  subject  of  evolution. 
If  there  be  in  the  organic  world  a  general  law  of  evolution, 
it  would  seem  naturally  to  follow  that  man,  in  common  with 
the  lower  animals,  should  be  subject  to  it.  His  likeness  to 
the  lower  animals  will,  therefore,  be  the  chief  point  of  the 
discussion.  First,  his  likeness  in  his  physical  constitution. 
In  what  does  this  likeness  consist,  how  close  is  it,  and  what 
is  its  force  in  showing  the  descent  of  man  from  an  animal 
below  him?  On  the  other  hand,  are  there  differences  be- 
tween the  lower  animals  and  man  which  render  his  descent 
from  them  highly  improbable,  if  not  impossible,  or  which 
at  least  make  man's  immediate  ancestor  hypothetical,  so 
that  the  case  cannot  be  proved  ? 

But,  secondly,  man  is  to  be  considered  as  to  his  likeness 
to  the  lower  animals  in  mind.  Is  the  likeness  essential,  so 


SCIENCE. 


395 


that  the  human  mind  may  be  shown  to  be  a  development 
of  the  animal  mind  ?  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  unlike- 
ness  radical,  making  it  clearly  impossible  that  the  human 
mind  should  be  a  mere  development  of  the  animal  mind? 
Here  may  arise  a  question  whether  man  may  not  be  a  de- 
velopment in  respect  to  his  body,  and  not  in  respect  to  his 
mind.  But  this  would  seem  to  be  precluded  by  the  rela- 
tion or  adaptation  of  the  body  to  the  mind ;  since  there 
would  be  a  like  difficulty  in  the  development  of  the  brain 
adapted  to  the  larger  or  different  mind,  as  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mind  itself. 

While,  therefore,  it  would  seem  that  evolution,  carried  to 
its  logical  conclusion,  should  include  man,  it  finds  in  him 
a  difficulty  not  before  encountered.  Its  application  to  man 
would  tend  to  work  a  revolution  in  psychology,  as  it  does 
in  science.  Would  it  raise  the  brute,  or  degrade  man? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Darwin's  Descent  of  Man. 

Fiske's  Cosmic  Philosophy,  V.  2,  Ft.  2,  Chap.  21,  22.     Same, 
No.  Am.,  117.  251. 

Haeckell's  Evolution  of  Man. 

Half-Hour  Recreations  in  Mod.  Sci.,  1.  23  (Virchow). 

Hartmann's  Anthropoid  Apes,  Chap.  3,  8. 

Huxley's  Man's  Place  in  Nature. 

Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism  (Bost.,  1881),  3.  83. 

Lyell :  I.  Principles  of  Geology,  nth  ed.,  Chap.  43. 
2.  The  Antiquity  of  Man,  4th  ed.,  Chap.  24. 

MacQueary's  Evolution  of  Man  and  Christianity,  new  ed.  (N.Y., 
1891),  Pt.  i,  Chap.  2. 

Schmidt's  Descent  and  Darwinism  (Internat.  Scient.  S.),  Chap- 
ter 12. 

Nature,  3.  442,  463. 

No.  Am.,  139.  145.        Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  13.  429. 

Westm.,  98.  378  (Am.  ed.,  p.  182);  132.  519. 

NEGATIVE. 

Argyll's  Primeval  Man,  Pt.  2. 

Dawson:  i.  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,  Chap.  15. 

2.  Facts  and  Fancies  in  Mod.  Sci.,  Lect.  4. 

3.  Mod.  Sci.  in  Bible  Lands  (Harper's  ed.),  pp.  141- 

147. 


396      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Fraser's  Blending  Lights,  Chap.  7. 
Half-Hours  with  Mod.  Scientists,  2.  7  (Wallace). 
Hopkins's  Scriptural  Idea  of  Man,  Chap.  i. 
McCosh's  Christianity  and  Positivism,  p.  346. 
Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap.  n. 
Reusch's  Nature  and  the  Bible,  V.  2,  Chap.  28,  29. 
Bapt.  Q.,  6.  129. 

Brit  .Q.,  54.  460  (Am.  ed.,  p.  242). 
Chr.  Exam.,  80.  60. 

Ed.  R.,  117.  541  (Am.  ed.,  p.  278) ;  134.  195  (Am.  ed.,  p.  99). 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  10.  134. 
Nation,  12.  258. 
Princ.,  N.S.,  5.  444. 

Quar.,  131.  47.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  385,  605.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 
111.67. 


THE   HUMAN   AND   THE   BRUTE   MIND. 

216.   Is  the  human  mind  different  from  the  brute  mind  in 
kind,  and  not  merely  in  degree  ? 

This  question  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  question 
of  the  evolution  of  the  human  from  the  brute  mind ;  hence 
advocates  of  this  theory  undertake  to  show  an  essential 
likeness.  An  essential  unlikeness  would  be  a  formidable 
objection  to  the  theory;  but  while  an  essential  likeness 
might  afford  a  presumption  in  its  favor,  it  would  scarcely 
amount  to  proof.  Hence  the  question  has  no  necessary 
connection  with  evolution,  though  in  its  later  discussion  it 
has  been  identified  with  it. 

With  respect  to  the  brute  the  question  implies  the  nature 
of  instinct ;  with  respect  to  man,  the  nature  of  reason.  Is 
the  instinct  of  the  brute  adequate  to  account  for  all  mani- 
festations of  its  intelligence  ?  Or  are  there,  in  some  of 
these  manifestations,  plain  traces  of  a  power  akin  to  human 
reason?  Wherein  is  human  reason  distinctive,  so  as  to 
make  it  of  quite  another  sort  from  anything  that  can  be 
claimed  for  the  brute?  Does  its  power  to  apprehend 
abstract  and  general  truths  make  it  thus  distinctive? 

Instinct  makes  the  brute,  in  some  things,  superior  ;  while 


SCIENCE.  397 

reason  raises  man,  on  the  whole,  immeasurably  above  the 
brute.  But  can  the  savage  be  classified,  in  respect  to 
mental  capability,  with  the  brute  rather  than  with  civilized 
man?  Has  he  in  him  an  undeveloped  reason,  implying 
possibilities  far  above  any  conceivable  possibility  in  the 
brute?  Are  there,  in  the  brute,  even  glimmerings  of  a 
moral  sense  such  as  characterizes  man  ?  But  is  the  moral 
sense  an  essential  and  universal  characteristic  of  man  ? 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Religion,  pp.  126-132. 
Bowen  :   I.  Lectures  on  Met.  and  Ethical  Sci.  (Bost,  1849),  2(^ 
Course,  Lect.  2,  p.  222. 

2.  Gleanings  from   a  Literary  Life,  p.  328.      Same, 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  5.  321. 

3.  Gleanings,  etc.,  pp.  223-229. 

4.  No.  Am.,  63.  91. 
Chadbourne's  Instinct  in  Animals  and  Men. 

Dawson's  Facts  and   Fancies   in  Mod.    Sci.   (Philad.,   1882), 

pp.  144-146. 
Haven's  Mental   Philos.  (Bost.,   1865),   Pt.  4,   Supplementary 

Topics,  Chap.  I,  p.  329. 

Wm.  James's  Principles  of  Psychology  (N.  Y.,  1891),  2.  348. 
Kinsley's  Views  on  Vexed  Questions,  p.  89. 
Mahan's  System  of  Mental  Philos.,  Chap.  19. 
Martineau's  Study  of  Religion,  1.  246-247  ;  2.  174-179,  211-212. 
Mivart's  Lessons  from  Nature,  Chap.  5-7. 
C.  Lloyd  Morgan's  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence  (Bost.,  1891), 

Chap.  8,  9. 

Muller's  Sci.  of  Language,  1.  348-356. 
Pressensd's  Study  of  Origins  (N.  Y.,  1884),  Bk.  3,  Chap.  3-5, 

pp.  282-361. 

Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap,  i,  34,  35. 
Stewart's  Elements  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  Pt.  3, 

Chap.  2.      Collected    Works,  ed.  by   Sir   Wm.  Hamilton 

(Edin.),  4.  250.     Works,  Am.  ed.  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1829), 

3.  240. 

Strong's  Systematic  Theology,  p.  235. 
Taylor's  World  of  Mind,  sec.  8-12. 
Van  Amringe's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Man,  pp.  327-342. 
Wright's  Studies  in  Sci.  and  Religion,  p.  347. 
Atlan.,  5.  513;  34.  412. 


398      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Bib.  Sac.,  28.  654  (Bascom). 

Brit.  Q.,  7.  347.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  17.  595. 

Contemp.,  25.  763  (Mivart).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  125.  387. 

Ed.  R.,  152.  36  (Am.  ed.,  p.  19).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  707. 

Princ.,  N.S.,  7.  124-128. 

NEGATIVE. 

Agassiz's  Contributions  to  the  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  60,  64. 

Bastian's  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind. 

Buchner's  Force  and  Matter,  Chap.  19. 

Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  V.  I,  Pt  I,  Chap.  2,  3. 

Fiske's  Cosmic  Philos.,  V.  2,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  21,  22.     Same,  No. 

Am.,  117.  251. 

HaeckelPs  Evolution  of  Man,  V.  2,  Chap.  26. 
Lindsay's  Mind  in  the  Lower  Animals,  2  vols. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  1.  644-645,  656-661,  681. 
Lubbock:  i.  Origin  of  Civilization  and  Primitive  Condition  of 

Man,  Chap.  4-7. 

2.  Prehistoric  Times  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  572-587. 
Lyell's  Antiquity  of  Man,  4th  ed.  rev.,  pp.  530-534. 
Plutarch's  Morals,  trans.  (Bost.,  1878),  5.  218. 
Pouchet's  Plurality  of  the  Human  Race,  trans.  (Lond.,  1864), 

Chap.  2. 
Romanes:  i.  Animal  Intelligence. 

2.  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals. 

Spencer's  Principles  of  Psychology  (N.  Y.),  V.  I,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  7. 
Watson's  Reasoning  Powers  in  Animals. 
Atlan.,  68.  299. 

Chamb.  J.,  5.  177.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  10.  90. 
Eel.  M.,  60.  374. 
Liv.  Age,  63.  387  ;   108.  40. 
Nation,  14.  291. 
Nature,  3.  182;  12.  507,  553-     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  8.  310, 

449- 

Nature,  20.  122. 
i9th  Cent.,  4.  653.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  14.  214.      Same, 

Eel.  M.,  91.  653. 
No.  Am.,  108.  37;  139.  145. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  11.  585;  16.  346;  29.  168;  33.  751. 
Westm.,  113.  448.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  145.  643. 


SCIENCE.  399 

THE   ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

217.   Is  the  evidence  sufficient  to  prove  the  great  antiquity  of 
the  human  race  ? 

The  antiquity  of  man  has  been  much  discussed,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  the  science  of  geology.  Evidence 
in  respect  to  it  may  also  be  derived  from  history,  ethnology, 
and  philology ;  and  the  particular  branch  of  knowledge  in 
which  it  is  comprised  is  known  as  prehistoric  archaeology. 

It  is  one  of  those  questions  which  cannot  be  determined 
with  exactness  and  with  certainty,  and  about  which  there  is 
room  for  wide  difference  of  judgment.  Number,  which  is 
exact,  can  only  be  applied  to  it  conjecturally,  and  cannot, 
therefore,  make  the  conclusions  exact.  Yet  the  data  are 
facts,  and,  being  taken  together,  may  authorize  a  general 
conclusion  which  shall  be  approximately  correct. 

The  remains  of  man  and  the  human  implements  which 
have  been  found  show  that  his  origin  is  comparatively  re- 
cent ;  but  how  far  back  this  shall  be  placed  depends  on  the 
estimate  adopted  of  general  geologic  time.  Of  the  scien- 
tists indicated  in  the  references,  Dawson,  Winchell,  and 
Wright  interpret  the  facts  as  showing  that  man's  origin  is 
less  remote  than  has  been  conjectured  by  some  others. 

C.  C.  Abbott's  Primitive  Industry,  p.  546. 

Argyll's  Primeval  Man,  Pt.  3. 

Brace's  Races  of  the  Old  World,  Chap.  32.     Same,  in  part, 

Allan.,  10.  670. 

Burgess's  Antiquity  and  Unity  of  the  Human  Race. 
Cowles's  Pentateuch,  pp.  49-59,  72-75. 
Dawkins:  i.  Cave  Hunting,  esp.  Chap.  12,  also  pp.  409-411. 

2.  Early  Man  in  Britain,  esp.  pp.  494-497. 
Dawson:    I.  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man,  Chap.  12,  13. 

2.  Origin  of  the  World,  Chap.  13,  14. 

3.  Nature  and  the  Bible,  Lect.  5. 

4.  Facts  and  Fancies  of  Mod.  Sci.,  Lect.  4. 

5.  Mod.  Sci.  in  Bible  Lands  (N.  Y.,  1889),  pp.  14?- 

177. 

6.  Princ.,  N.  s.,  6.  383. 
Encyc.  Brit.  ,2.  1 1 5-1 1 7  (Tylor). 


400      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Evans:  i.  Ancient  Stone  Implements  of  Great  Britain. 

2.  Ancient  Bronze  Implements  of  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Hugh  Falconer's  Palasontological  Memoirs  and  Notes  (Lond., 

1868),  Chap.  24. 

Foster's  Prehistoric  Races  of  the  U.  S.,  Chap.  I,  2. 
Eraser's  Blending  Lights,  Chap.  11,  12. 
Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  2.  33-41. 
Joly's  Man  before  Metals,  Pt.  I. 
Keary's  Dawn  of  Hist.,  Chap.  I,  2. 
Le  Conte's  Elements  of  Geology,  (N.  Y.,  1878),  p.  560. 
Lubbock's  Prehistoric  Times. 
Lyell's  Antiquity  of  Man,  4th  ed. 

MacQueary's  Evolution  of  Man  and  Christianity,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  4. 
Pressense^s  Study  of  Origins,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  4,  sec.  2. 
Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap.  12,  13. 
Rawlinson's  Origin  of  Nations,  Pt.  I,  Chap,  2-9. 
Reusch's  Nature  and  the  Bible,  trans.  (Edin.,  1886),  Chap.  34-36. 
Smithsonian  Rep.,  1867,  p.  335;  1872,  p.  310. 
Southall's  Recent  Origin  of  Man. 
Winchell:  I.  Sketches  of  Creation,  pp.  367-369. 

2.  The  Preadamites,  Chap.  27. 

3.  Reconciliation  between  Science  and  Religion,  pp. 

222-223,  368-370. 

Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist,  of  Am.,  V.  i,  Chap.  6. 
Wright :  I.  The  Ice  Age  in  No.  Am.  (N.  Y.,  1889),  Chap.  20-22. 

2.  Man  and  the  Glacial  Period  (N.  Y.,  1892). 

3.  Studies  in  Sci.  and  Religion,  Chap.  6. 

4.  Divine  Authority  of  the  Bible,  pp.  200-203. 

5.  Am.  J.  Sci.,  121.  120.    Bib.  Sac.,  30.  381  ;  41.  369 

(The  Niagara  Gorge  as  a  Chronometer). 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  95.  180. 

Blackw.,  88.  422.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  51.  524. 
Brit.  Q.,  59.  342  (Am.  ed.,  p.  186).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  82.  641. 
Contemp.,  46.  62.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  162.  282. 
Eel.  M.,  59.  63;  60.  i,  151  ;  68.  393,  554. 
Ed.  R.,  116.  153  (Am.  ed..  p.  77);  118.  254  (Am.  ed.,  p.  128). 
Independent  (N.  Y.),  1875,  May  27,  p.  i  ;  Aug.  26,  p.  i;  Sept. 

2,  p.  3  ;  Sept.  16,  p.  3.     1882,  Sept.  21,  p.  7. 
Nat.  R.,  10.  279.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  51.  i. 
Nature,  8.  462. 

i9th  Cent.,  22.  667  (Wallace).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  175.  473. 
No.  Am.,  97.  451 ;  137.  338  ;  139.  246. 
No.  Brit,  50.  516.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  74.  i. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  6.  672;  7.  10 ;  12.  61 ;  14.  794;  17.  350. 
Science,  1.  269,  359;  4.  438,  469. 


SCIENCE. 


UNITY   OF   MANKIND. 


401 


218.  Have  the  races  of  men  a  specific  unity  and  a  common 

origin  ? 

219.  Are  the  races  of  men  of  diverse  origin  ? 

The  unity  of  man  has  been  maintained  by  the  majority 
as  well  of  scientists  as  of  philosophers  and  theologians. 
The  diverse  origin  of  the  various  human  races  has  been 
maintained  on  scientific  grounds  by  distinguished  natural- 
ists;  but  some  of  these,  as  Agassiz,  have  affirmed  that 
this  was  not  inconsistent  with  their  essential  unity  as  one 
species. 

It  must  be  owned  that  there  are  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  proving  the  unity  of  man,  which  serve  to  render  the 
opposite  theory  neither  absurd  nor  altogether  untenable. 
What  adequate  cause  or  causes,  for  example,  have  been  or 
can  be  assigned,  on  the  assumption  of  the  common  origin 
of  the  races,  for  their  wide  divergences  ?  Evolution,  in- 
deed, undertakes  to  account  for  all  divergences,  however 
wide,  and  postulates  the  existence  of  a  genetic  relation 
between  all  things.  Hence  the  prevalence  of  this  theory 
has  contributed  much  to  the  establishment  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  unity  of  man. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Burgess's  Antiquity  and  Unity  of  the  Human  Race. 
Cabell's  Unity  of  Mankind. 
Cowles's  Pentateuch,  pp.  75-76. 
Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  Pt.  i ,  Chap.  7. 
Encyc.  Brit,  2.  114. 

Figuier's  Human  Race,  Introd.,  Chap.  i. 
Eraser's  Blending  Lights,  Chap  8. 
Hall's  Questions  of  the  Day,  Chap.  i. 
Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  V.  2,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  4. 
Humboldt's  Cosmos  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  352-353. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.  of  Bib.  and  Theol.  Lit.,  1.  66. 
Prichard's  Researches  into  the  Physical  Hist,  of  Mankind. 
Quatrefages,  Human  Species  (Internat.  Scient.  S.),  Bk.  4-6, 
Chap.  14-20. 

26 


402      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Reusch's  Nature  and  the  Bible,  V.  2,  Chap.  30-32. 

Smyth's  Unity  of  the  Human  Races. 

Southall's  Recent  Origin  of  Man,  Chap.  2. 

WinchelPs  Preadamites,  Chap.  19-25. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  3.  177. 

No.  Am.,  73.  163. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  61. 

Putnam,  5.  79. 

Scrib.  Mo.,  3.  733- 

NEGATIVE. 

Agassiz:  I.  Sketch  of  the  Nat.  Provinces  of  the  Animal  World, 
and  their  Relation  to  the  different  Types  of  Men. 
In  Nott  and  Gliddon's  Types  of  Mankind,  p.  Iviii. 

2.  Nott  and  Gliddon's  Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth, 

p.  xiii. 

3.  Chr.  Exam.,  49.  no. 

Gobineau's  Moral  and  Intellectual  Diversity  of  Races,  trans. 

(Philad.,  1857). 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  1.  5°5-5l6;  2-  210-218. 
Nott  and  Gliddon  :  i.  Types  of  Mankind. 

2.  Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth. 

Pouchet's  Plurality  of  the  Human  Race,  trans.  (Lond.,  1864). 
Van  Amringe's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Man. 
Putnam,  4.  I. 


SAVAGISM. 

220.  Is  the  savage  state  the  primitive  and  natural  condition 

of  man  ? 

221.  Is  savagism  a  degenerate  condition  of  human  nature? 

It  will  be  important  in  discussing  this  question  to  deter- 
mine, with  some  degree  of  defmiteness,  what  are  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  characteristics  of  the  savage  state.  This 
must  be  done  by  the  study  of  the  traits  of  savage  peoples. 
It  may  then  be  considered  whether  this  state  is  a  mere 
lowness  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  or  whether  it  is  rather 
something  unnatural,  a  perversion  of  genuine  human  nature. 
In  other  words,  is  a  close  approximation  to  the  brutal,  with 
a  minimum  of  the  intellectual  and  moral,  a  natural  state  of 


SCIENCE.  403 

man  ?  Here  is  seen  the  relation  of  the  subject  to  that  of 
the  evolution  of  man. 

The  question  is,  however,  one  of  fact,  and  must  there- 
fore be  determined  by  the  facts,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
ascertained,  which  relate  to  the  early  history  and  state  of 
man.  Was  prehistoric  man,  though  undeveloped,  properly 
a  savage  ?  Are  the  early  civilizations  a  normal  develop- 
ment from  a  previous  savage  state  ?  Is  civilization  ever 
a  self-development  from  savagism?  Or  in  order  to  the 
passage  from  savagism  to  civilization  is  there  required  an 
outside  stimulus  ? 

The  subject,  it  will  be  seen,  involves  the  question  of  the 
nature  and  origin  of  moral  evil.  Is  evil  imperfect  good? 
And  is  good  a  natural  development  from  evil?  Or  is  evil  a 
lapse  from,  a  corruption  of,  a  primitive  good  ? 

Argyll:  I.  Primeval  Man,  Pt.  4. 

2.  Unity  of  Nature,  Chap.  10.    Same,  Contemp.  39.  333. 
Bartlett's  Sources  of  Hist,  in  the  Pentateuch,  Lect.  2,  3. 
Bowen,  A  Layman's  Study  of  the  Eng.  Bible,  pp.  61-64. 
Dawson's  Science  in  Bible  Lands,  Chap.  3,  4. 
Fisher's  Supernatural  Origin  of  Christianity,  pp.  545-546. 
Eraser's  Blending  Lights,  Chap.  9,  10. 
Hittell's  Hist,  of  Culture,  Chap.  I. 
Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  2.  292-296. 
Lubbock  :   i.  Origin  of  Civilization,  and  Primitive  Condition  of 

Man. 

2.  Prehistoric  Times,  Chap.  13-15. 

Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology,  nth  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1874),  2.485-487, 
Mivart's  Lessons  from  Nature  (N.  Y.),  pp.  146-160. 
Morgan's  Ancient  Society. 

Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  1.  250. 
Pressens£'s  Study  of  Origins,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  4. 
Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap.  21. 
Rawlinson's  Origin  of  Nations,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  I. 
Reusch's  Nature  and  the  Bible,  trans.,  2.  17S~1^' 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Sociology,  V.  I,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  5-8. 
Strong's  Systematic  Theology,  pp.  369-372. 
Tylor:  i.  Primitive  Culture,  Chap.  2-4. 

2.  Early  Hist,  of  Mankind. 
Winchell's  Preadamites,  Chap.  17,  26. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  4.  277;  6.  i. 


404      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Bib.  Sac.,  6.  715;  29.282. 

Brownson,  22.  205. 

Contemp.,  21.  701  ;   22.  53. 

Ed.  R.,  135.  88  (Am.  ed.,  p.  45). 

Fortn.,  38.  308.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  22.  94.    Same,  Eel.  M., 

99.  577- 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  17.  70. 
Nation,  11.  299.         Nature,  14.  410-412. 
1 9th  Cent.,  17.  109.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  104.  343- 
Princ.,  N.  S.,  10.  194-196. 

Quar.,  137.  40  (Am.  ed.,  p.  22).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  84.  129. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  3.  740-742 ;  7.  169. 


HEREDITY  AND   ENVIRONMENT. 

222.   Is  heredity  more  influential  in  the  development  of  man, 
intellectually  and  morally  y  than  his  environment  J 

Heredity  embraces  what  a  man  is  in  himself,  through 
inheritance  from  his  ancestors ;  environment  comprises  all 
outward  influences,  —  such,  in  general,  as  climate,  home, 
education,  government,  individual  example,  —  all,  in  short, 
which  goes  to  make  up  one's  circumstances.  Will,  often  a 
potential  factor  in  individual  development,  is,  in  this  ques- 
tion, considered  only  as  it  may  be  included  in  heredity. 
Heredity,  then,  represents  man  in  his  original  nature,  as 
he  is  potentially  at  birth;  and  the  inherited  powers  and 
susceptibilities  comprised  in  this  are  acted  upon  and  de- 
veloped by  external  forces,  being  thereby  confirmed  and 
strengthened,  or  corrected  and  modified. 

Heredity  defines  and  limits  a  man's  personality ;  no 
circumstances  can  raise  him  above  himself.  Yet  what  is 
the  subject  without  its  object?  To  every  mind  all  things 
are  correlated,  and  necessary  to  its  development.  Outward 
forces  have  also  an  influence  on  heredity  itself;  for  a  man 
transmits  to  his  offspring  his  native  characteristics  as  devel- 
oped and  modified  by  his  circumstances.  Thus,  heredity 
and  environment  enter  into  the  problem  as  its  necessary 
factors ;  and  the  question  which  is  the  more  influential 
may  be  more  easily  asked  than  definitely  answered. 


SCIENCE.  405 

HEREDITY. 

Jos.  Cook's  Heredity  (Bost.  Mon.  Lect). 

Dugdale's  "The  Jukes." 

Elam's  Physician's  Problems,  Chap.  I. 

Galton:  i.  Hereditary  Genius. 

2.  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty. 

S.  M.  Green's  Crime  (Philad.,  1889),  Art.  2,  Chap.  2. 

Hinsdale's  Schools  and  Studies,  pp.  1-18,  27. 

Ribot's  Heredity. 

Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea,   trans.,    3d  ed* 
(Lond.,  1891),  V.  3,  Chap.  43. 

And.  R.,  7.  53. 

Brit.  Q.,  29.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  62.  140. 

Eel.  M.,  105.  804  (A   Recipe  for  Genius);  107.  13  (Mauds- 
ley). 

Meth.  R.,  49.  44  (Jan.,  1889). 

Nation,  20.  405. 

New  Eng.,  51.  161. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  14.  356. 


ENVIRONMENT. 

Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  V.  I,  Chap.  2. 

Craft's  Successful  Men  of  To-day,  Chap.  4. 

Draper's  Future  Civil  Policy  of  America,  Chap.  i. 

Everett's  Orations,  1.  404,  599.  Same,  Everett's  Practical  Edu- 
cation, pp.  172,  213. 

T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  2  (Force  of 
Circumstances). 

Guyot's  Earth  and  Man. 

Hinsdale's  Schools  and  Studies,  pp.  27-29. 

Rantoul's  Memoirs,  Speeches,  and  Writings,  p.  73.  Same, 
No.  Am.,  47.  274  (Education). 

Chr.  R.,  8.  514  (Development  of  Character  under  the  Influence 
of  Popular  Education). 

Hours  at  Home,  1.  409 ;  2.  56  (The  Home  Feeling). 

Meth.  R.,  49.  50. 

New  Eng.,  6.  207. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  4.  55,  170  (Discusses  Heredity  and  Environ- 
ment). 


406     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

HEREDITARY   GENIUS. 
223.    Is  genius  hereditary  ? 

It  will  be  necessary,  in  the  discussion  of  this  question, 
first  to  determine  definitely  what  genius  is,  in  distinction 
not  only  from  ordinary,  but  also  from  extraordinary  talent. 

A  genius  is  the*  greatest  of  even  great  men;  and  his 
greatness  is  peculiar,  so  that  he  is  unapproachable.  Genius 
is  inborn,  individual,  original,  creative.  It  is  a  power  new 
and  wonderful,  which  makes  not  only  its  possessor,  but 
humanity,  great.  It  is  a  power  of  large  comprehension,  of 
lofty  imagination,  of  clear  and  quick  intuition,  and  of  vast 
achievement.  It  may  be  studied  in  the  great  poets,  ora- 
tors, artists,  composers,  philosophers,  statesmen,  command- 
ers, and  religious  leaders,  who  constitute  the  grand  figures 
of  history,  and  have  added  immensely  to  the  world's  thought 
and  life. 

Now  is  genius,  in  this  large  sense,  transmissible  ?  Has 
the  genius  received  his  peculiar  and  extraordinary  power 
from  his  ancestors,  and  does  he  transmit  it  to  his  descend- 
ants? In  short,  does  heredity  afford  a  scientific  solution  of 
the  genesis  of  genius  ?  Or  does  it  still  remain  unsolved,  if 
not  insolvable  ? 

Galton,  who  has  made  the  subject  a  special  study,  gives 
an  abundance  of  facts  from  which  conclusions  may  be 
drawn.  Some  of  the  articles  referred  to  discuss  the  nature 
of  genius. 

Carpenter's  Mental  Physiology  (N.  Y.),  p.  503. 
Elam's  Physician's  Problems,  pp.  32-38. 
Galton:  i.  Hereditary  Genius.. 

2.  English  Men  of  Science. 

3.  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty. 

Hedge's  Atheism  in  Philos.,  and  Other  Essays,  p.  354.     Same, 

Atlan.,  21.  150. 

Schopenhauer's  Select  Essays,  trans.  (Milwaukee,  1881). 
Whipple's  Lit.  and  Life,  p.  156. 
Atlan.,  13.  137;  46.  441  ;  47.  75,  371. 


SCIENCE.  407 

Bib.  Sac.,  12.  283. 

Ed.  R.,  132.  100  (Am.  ed.,  p.  53).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  106.  668. 

Eel.  M.,  105.  804  (A  Recipe  for  Genius);  107. 19,  2o(Maudsley). 

Fortn.,  19.  345  (Galton).     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  3.  65. 

Nature,  1.  501  (Wallace). 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  24.  191  (Neg.). 


HISTORY   AS   SCIENCE. 

224.    Can  history  be  reduced  to  a  science1} 

22$.   Is  national  character  formed  more  by  physical  than  by 

moral  causes  ? 
226.   Has  climate  a  preponderating  influence  in  determining 

the  character  and  history  of  a  nation  ? 

History  as  science  is  not  identical  with  the  philosophy 
of  history.  The  latter  implies  the  application  of  reason  to 
history,  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  subject ;  while 
the  former,  by  its  implication  not  merely  of  certainty,  but 
of  the  necessity  which  is  an  essential  characteristic  of  the 
physical  sciences,  restricts,  if  it  does  not  even  change,  the 
nature  of  the  subject. 

The  question  is  therefore  equivalent  to  that  of  the  influ- 
ence of  material  forces  on  human  character  and  conduct 
as  these  enter  into  history.  The  fundamental  question  of 
human  freedom  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  leading  points 
which  must  enter  into  the  discussion.  The  relation  of 
man  to  nature  is  brought  in  question,  —  how  far  he  is  a 
part  of  and  subject  to  it,  and  whether  he  is  in  any  sense 
above  and  distinct  from  it.  The  relation  of  spiritual  to 
natural  laws  may  be  considered. 

That  natural  agencies,  such  as  climate,  soil,  food,  etc. 
have  an  important  influence  on  individual  and  national 
character,  is  unquestionable ;  but  is  this  influence  control- 
ling, so  that  what  man  is  he  must  be  ?  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  moral,  and  what  are  its  place  and  influence  in  history  ? 

Buckle,  in  particular,  has  excited  an  interest  in  this 
subject,  and  his  exposition  of  his  theory  has  called  out 
many  replies. 


408      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


AFFIRMATIVE. 

Andrews's  Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist,  Chap.  I,  Sec.  9-16,  pp.  8-15. 
Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,   1885),   Bk.  3, 

Chap.  1-3. 

Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization  in  Eng.,  V.  i,  Chap.  1-5. 
Comte's  Positive  Philos.,  V.  2,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  6-12. 
Draper  :  i.  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  I,  2,  26. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Am.  Civil  War,  V.  i  ;   V.  3,  Chap.  96. 

3.  Future  Civil  Policy  of  Am.,  Chap.  i. 
Guyot's  Earth  and  Man,  Chap.  10-12. 

Mill:  i.  Philos.  of  Comte,  pp.  80-112. 

2.  Logic,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  10. 

3.  Polit.  Econ.,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  7,  sec.  2,  3. 
Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  Laws  (Cm.,  1873),  V.  i,  Bk.  14. 
Seaman's  Progress  of  Nations,  V.  i,  Chap.  1-3  ;   V.  2,  Chap. 

22-25. 

Spencer:  i.  Principles  of  Sociology,  V.  i,  Pt  i,  Chap.  2;  3. 
2.  Study  of  Sociology,  Chap.  2,  3. 

Fortn.,  8.  226  (Ans.  to  Froude). 

No.  Am.,  102.  24. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  5.  322.  Same,  Spencer's  Principles  of  Sociol- 
ogy, 1.  18-26. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  17.  705. 

Westm.,  68.  375  (Am.  ed.,  p.  206).  72.  67  (Am.  ed.,  p.  38). 
75.  305  (Am  ed.,  p.  161),  Rev.  of  Kingsley.  76.  293  (Am. 
ed.,  p.  157),  Ans.  to  G.  Smith. 

NEGATIVE. 

Adams's  Manual  of  Hist.  Lit,  pp.  4-17. 

Bowen's  Gleanings  from  a  Lit.  Life,  p.  247.     Same,  No.  Am., 

93.  519. 

Bluntschli's  Theory  of  the  State,  trans.  (Ox.,  1885),  pp.  217,  221. 
Flint's  Philos.  of  Hist,  in  France  and  Germany,  Bk.  i,  Chap. 

12  (Comte). 
Froude's  Short  Studies,  1.  7.     Same,  in  part,  Hours  at  Home, 

2.  321. 

Froude's  Short  Studies,  2.  445. 
Kingsley's   Limits  of  Exact   Science   as   applied   to   History. 

Same,  Kingsley's  Roman  and  Teuton  (Lond.,  1875),  p.  307. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  Bk.  6,  Chap,  i  ;  2.  192-202. 
Goldwin  Smith's  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Hist.  (Am  ed.,  pp. 

45-ii5»  165-184). 


SCIENCE. 


409 


Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and    Idea,  trans.,  V.  3, 

Chap.  38. 

Thornton's  Old-fashioned  Ethics,  p.  84.     Same,  Macmil.,  8.  25. 
Wickersham's  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  428-446. 
Atlan.,  11.  27;   25.  49-56. 
Bib.  Sac.,  20.  279. 
Blackw.,  84.  515. 
Chr.  Exam.,  71.  374;  84.  394. 
Chr.  R.,  24.  113. 
Eel.  M.,  55.  467. 

Ed.  R.,  107.  465  (Am.  ed.,  p.  238). 
Fortn.,  33.  672.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  145.  579. 
Fraser,  87.  482. 
Nation,  5.  207. 
Nat.  Q.,  4.  30. 
New  Eng.,  21,  173. 
No.  Am.,  101.  589  ;  105.  664. 
No.  Brit.,  35.  253  (Am.  ed.,  p.  133). 
Quar.,  104.  38  (Am.  ed.,  p.  21).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  58.  648. 

VIVISECTION. 

227.  Is  the  practice  of  vivisection  for  scientific  purposes 

justifiable  ? 

228.  Is  vivisection  cruel  and  unnecessary  ? 

The  opposition  to  vivisection  rests  chiefly  on  ethical 
grounds ;  its  defence  is  founded  mainly  on  its  utility  in  the 
advancement  of  important  and  practical  scientific  knowl- 
edge, and  through  this  the  promotion  of  human  welfare. 
The  defence  meets  the  charge  of  cruelty  either  by  denial 
or  by  justification,  while  the  opposition  either  denies  its 
utility,  or  insists  that  it  does  not  justify  its  essential  cruelty. 
On  the  issue,  thus  squarely  joined,  the  discussion  has  been 
conducted  on  both  sides  with  positiveness  and  vigor. 

The  question  is  one  of  facts,  relating  to  one  or  the  other 
of  the  points  in  dispute.  Is  vivisection  necessarily  accom- 
panied with  extreme  and  prolonged  suffering  to  its  victims  ? 
Has  it  really  been  the  necessary  means  of  many  important 
discoveries  in  science  ?  The  ethics  of  man's  relation  to  the 
lower  animals  must  enter  more  or  less  into  the  discussion. 


410      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

It  is  not  hard  to  make  a  strong  case  against  vivisection, 
while  it  is  also  capable  of  as  stout  a  defence. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Contemp.,  28.  713;  41.  812.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  21.  344. 

Contemp.,  43.  498-510. 

Fortn.,  43.  249.     Same,  Eel.  M .,  104.  558. 

Internat.  R.,  8.  120. 

Macmil.,  29.  367.    Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  4.  672.    Same,  Eel.  M., 

82.  408. 

Nation,  28.  417  ;  29.  256,  309,  346 ;   30.  94. 
Nature,  9.  144,  177;  12.  21;  13.  321,  342;   14.  65,  149,  170, 

197,  250,  289,  339,  369. 

1 9th  Cent.,  10.  920,  931,  936;  11.  456,  468,  479. 
No.  Am.,  140.  203. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  22.  615  ;   23.  169;  25.  759. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  20.  766. 
Westm.,  85.  132  (Am.  ed.,  p.  60) ;  137.  245. 

NEGATIVE. 

Contemp.,  29.  335;  41.  610,  788;  43.  510. 
Fortn.,  21.  618;  23.  435;  23.  847.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  221. 
Fraser,  91.  521. 
Nation,  20.  128. 
Nat.  Q.,  31.  253. 

I9th  Cent.,  11.  29.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  98.  289. 
i9th  Cent.,  11.  171. 
Nature,  9.  121,  242. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  20.  391. 


THE    PLURALITY   OF  WORLDS. 

229.  Is  it  probable  that  the  planets  or  other  heavenly  bodies 

are  inhabited? 

230.  Is  there  a  plurality  of  inhabited  worlds  ? 

The  question  whether  other  worlds  are  inhabited  is  a 
speculative  one,  dealing  rather  with  probabilities  than 
with  certainties.  Nevertheless,  science  furnishes  some  facts 
which  serve  as  data  for  reasonings  and  conclusions  implying 
no  small  degree  of  probability. 


SCIENCE.  4U 

The  natural  presumption  would  seem  to  be,  that  in  other 
worlds,  as  on  this  earth,  various  orders  of  life,  of  which 
the  highest  should  possess  rational  intelligence,  would  find 
place.  While  such  considerations  may,  in  the  want  of 
positive  knowledge,  have  weight,  it  is  obvious  that  this 
cannot  determine  the  question  as  a  matter  of  fact. 

The  point  which  was  for  some  time  overlooked,  and  the 
raising  of  which  by  Whewell  brought  the  whole  subject  into 
a  new  position,  is  whether  the  physical  conditions  in  other 
worlds  is  such  as  to  permit  the  existence  of  life.  With  re- 
spect to  the  moon  and  some  of  the  planets  the  facts,  so  far 
as  ascertained,  seem  more  favorable  to  the  negative ;  while 
with  respect  to  more  distant  worlds  we  are  still  left  to  con- 
jecture. There  seems,  then,  to  be  no  positive  proof  either 
that  there  are  or  that  there  are  not  other  inhabited  worlds 
beside  our  own. 

Chalmers's  Astronomical  Discourses. 
Dick's  Celestial  Scenery,  Chap.  9. 
Whewell's  Plurality  of  Worlds. 

Brewster's  More  Worlds  than  One  (Ans.  to  Whewell). 
Newcomb's  Pop.  Astronomy,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  3,  sec.  6,  p.  524. 
Proctor:  I.  Border  Land  of  Science,  p.  no.     Same,  Cornh., 
23.  576.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  77.  218. 

2.  Border  Land  of  Science,  p.   130.     Same,  Cornh., 

28.  88.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  81.  299.     Same,   Liv. 
Age,  118.  488. 

3.  Science   Byways,   p.   i.     Same,    Cornh.,  31.  691. 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  166.    Same,  Liv.  Age,  126.45. 

4.  Our  Place  among  the  Infinities,  p.  45. 

5.  Mysteries  of  Time  and  Space,  p.  55. 

6.  Myths  and  Marvels  of  Astronomy,  Chap.  5. 

7.  Other  Worlds  than  Ours. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  3.  572 ;  4.  393. 
Blackw.,  76.  288,  371. 

Brit.  Q.,  20.  45. 

Chr.  Exam.,  57.  208. 

Chr.  R.,  20.  202. 

Dub.  Univ.  R.,  92.  14.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  71.  935. 

Eel.  M.,  55.  327. 

Ed.  R.,  102.  435  (Am.  ed.,  p.  223).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  37.  25. 


412      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Fraser,  49.  245.     Same,  Eel.   M.,  32.  48.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

41.  51. 

Harper,  33.  45. 
Meth.  Q.,  15.  356. 
New  Eng.,  12.  570. 
No.  Brit.,  21.  I. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  10.  718;  23.  202. 
Pop.  Sci.  R.,  16.  38  (Proctor).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  132.  362. 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  88.  310. 
Presb.  R.,  6.  257. 
Science,  2.  10. 
St.  Paul's,  3.  676.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  99.  419.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

72.664. 


ARCTIC   EXPLORATION. 
231.   Has  Arctic  exploration  been  justified  in  its  results? 

In  general  exploration,  that  of  the  Arctic  regions  seems  to 
occupy  a  place  so  large  that  it  becomes  a  question  whether 
the  attention  given  to  this  part  of  the  globe  has  not  been 
disproportionate  to  its  relative  importance.  This  view  is 
confirmed  by  a  consideration  not  only  of  the  cost  of  the 
expeditions,  but  of  their  perilous  nature,  and  of  the  con- 
sequent suffering  and  loss  of  life  attending  them.  The 
question  of  the  importance  of  these  expeditions  must,  it  is 
evident,  be  determined  by  the  value  of  the  objects  gained. 

To  pierce  the  mystery  surrounding  the  unknown  region 
of  the  north  pole  has  been  the  dream  of  many  an  adventur- 
ous spirit ;  and  the  daring  required  in  the  attempt,  together 
with  the  danger  and  uncertainty  attending  it,  has  but  lured 
him  on.  The  discovery  of  a  Northwest  Passage,  which 
might  inure  to  the  advantage  of  commerce,  was  for  a  time 
the  object  sought ;  yet  neither  in  this  nor  in  the  attempts 
to  reach  the  north  pole  is  to  be  found  the  justification  of 
the  numerous  Arctic  voyages.  If  in  anything  this  is  to  be 
found  in  that  which  has  seemed  incidental,  —  in  the  value 
of  the  additions  to  scientific  knowledge.  An  estimate  of  the 
nature,  extent,  and  value  of  this  knowledge  may  be  gained 
from  the  books  and  articles  indicated  in  the  references. 


SCIENCE.  413 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  1.  667. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1883,  p.  420  (Greely  Relief  Expedition).     Also 

in   each  volume  from    1876,   under   Geog.    Progress   and 

Discovery. 
Barlow's  Voyages  of  Discovery  and  Research  within  the  Arctic 

Regions  (N.Y.,  1859). 
De  Long's  Voyage  of  the  Jeannette. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  9.  721-722  (Sir  John  Franklin)  ;   19.  315  (Polar 

Regions). 

Greely 's  Three  Years  of  Arctic  Service. 

Hartwig's  Polar  World,  Chap.  43,  44  (Supplementary  Chapters). 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  Polar  Research,  3.  1311. 
Kane's  Arctic  Explorations. 

Nourse's  Am.  Explorations  in  the  Ice  Zone  (Bost,  1884). 
Sargent's  Arctic  Adventures  (Bost.,  1857). 
Verne's  Great  Explorers  of  the  iQth  Cent.,  2d  Ft.,  Chap.  3. 
Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist,  of  Am.,  V.  8,  Chap.  2. 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  74.  235. 
Atlan.,  52.  557. 

Blackw.,  117.  777.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  235. 
Chamb.  J.,  18.  373.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  36.  231. 
Chamb.  J.,  26.  387.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  52.  481. 
Chr.  Exam.,  68.  430. 

Contemp.,  22.  678.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  119.  341. 
Cornh.,  31.  222.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  84.  442. 
Ed.  R.,  141.  447  (Am.  ed.,  p.  232).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  125.  579. 
Forum,  1.  235. 

Fraser,  38.  603.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  20.  289. 
Harper,  2.  588. 
Liv.  Age,  44.  195. 
Nation,  37.  378. 
Nature,  5.  77;  7.  117;  9.  37,  97;  11.  37,  61,  63;  15.  I,  11; 

18.  118;  22.  171  ;    26.  479;    30.  290. 
No.  Am.,  80.  307;  84.  95;  124.  229;  128.  86,  191. 
No.  Brit,  16.  446  (Am.  ed.,  p.  236). 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  7.  320;  27.  78. 
Pop.  Sci.  R.,  14.  154.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  126.  27. 
Quar.,  143.  146.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  88.  385.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

132.  643. 

Quar.,  150.  in  (Am.  ed.,  p.  58).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  451. 
Smithsonian  Rep.,  1869,  p.  149. 
Westm.,  125.  461. 


414      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


REVELATIONS    OF   TELESCOPE   AND 
MICROSCOPE. 

232.    Are  the  revelations  of  the  telescope  more  wonderful 
than  the  revelations  of  the  microscope  ? 

All  knowledge  stretches  in  every  direction  to  an  infinity 
which  balks  the  limited  powers  of  man.  Above  and  around 
him  are  worlds  on  worlds,  of  whose  very  existence  he  may 
be  wholly  ignorant.  But  the  short  range  of  his  senses  he 
has  supplemented  by  instruments,  such  as  the  telescope 
and  microscope,  which  have  done  much  to  bring  these 
unknown  worlds  into  view. 

The  telescope  brings  into  nearer  vision,  and  thus  enlarges 
to  the  eye,  distant  worlds,  making  accessible  to  human 
knowledge  the  complex  mechanism  of  the  heavens ;  while 
the  microscope,  by  magnifying  the  little,  brings  within  the 
range  of  human  vision  that  which  in  its  natural  size  is  far 
below  it.  Revelations  are  thus  made  of  the  great  and  of 
the  small,  which  alike  excite  surprise  and  wonder,  the  one 
by  its  magnitude  and  vastness,  the  other  by  its  perfection 
in  minuteness. 

TELESCOPE. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  15.  622. 
Burr's  Ecce  Coelum. 
Dick:  i.  Celestial  Scenery. 

2.  Sidereal  Heavens. 

3.  Practical  Astronomy. 

4.  The  Solar  System. 

All  in  Works  (Cin.,  1861),  V.  2. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  135. 
Mitchell's  Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds. 
Nasmyth  and  Carpenter,  The  Moon  (Lond.,  1874). 
Newcomb's  Pop.  Astronomy. 

Pouchet,  The  Universe,  p.  511,  The  Sidereal  Universe. 
Proctor:  i.  Myths  and  Marvels  of  Astronomy. 

2.  Mysteries  of  Time  and  Space. 

3.  The  Expanse  of  Heaven. 

4.  Our  Place  among  the  Infinities. 


SCIENCE.  415 

Young,  The  Sun. 

Cent.,  6.  7I2,922;  7-  224,  700. 

Contemp.,  41.  923.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  153.  771. 

Eel.  M.,  56.  145;  57.  113. 

Ed.  R.,  163.  372.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  169.  451. 

No.  Brit.,  6.  206  (Am.  ed.,  p.  107). 

Westm.,  46.  335  (Am.  ed.,  p.  171).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  12.  414. 

MICROSCOPE. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11.  513. 

Carpenter's  Microscope  and  its  Revelations. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  16.  258  (Microscope);  19.  830  (Protozoa). 

Griffith's  Micrographic  Diet.  (Philad.,  1851),  6th  ed.,  1881. 

Pouchet,  The  Universe:   The  Animal  Kingdom.     Bk.  I,  The 

Invisible  World. 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  46.  297. 
Eel.  M.,  48.  41. 
Ev.  Sat,  5.  293. 
Harper,  52.  505,  650,  812. 
Liv.  Age,  28.  337  ;   65.  131. 
Lond.  Q.,  47.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  132.  67. 
No.  Brit,  25.  437  (Am.  ed.,  p.  234).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  16.  227. 
Westm.,  46.  29  (Am.  ed.,  p.  15).     Same,  Eel.   M.,  9.  452. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  11.  449. 
Westm.,  79.  158  (Am.  ed.,  p.  85.). 


TELEGRAPH   AND   TELEPHONE. 
233.   Is  the  telegraph  more  useful  than  the  telephone1} 

The  telegraph  is  a  wonderful  instrument,  and  has  pro- 
duced astounding  results.  Annihilating  space  and  time,  it 
has  brought  the  ends  of  the  earth  together,  and  made  the 
world  practically  one.  A  natural  force  is  thus  made  the 
servitor  of  intelligence,  distributing  it  with  the  celerity  of 
lightning.  Its  uses  in  this  respect,  in  its  various  applica- 
tions, are  manifold  and  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  important  of  the  numerous  inventions 
which  have  revolutionized  modern  civilization  ;  and  its 
sudden  and  general  destruction  would  at  once  clearly  show 
its  vital  necessity  to  manifold  human  interests. 


41 6      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

The  telephone  is  a  modification  of  the  telegraph,  and 
related  to  it  in  its  use  as  speech  to  writing.  If  therefore 
from  its  nature,  like  speech,  it  cannot  reach  so  far,  it  may 
be  no  less  extensive,  and  even  more  common.  If  the  tele- 
graph transmits  messages  to  longer  distances,  the  telephone 
furnishes  facilities  for  a  more  free  and  full  communication. 
It  serves,  therefore,  to  supplement  the  telegraph,  and  has 
an  important  sphere  of  its  own. 

TELEGRAPH. 

Am.  Almanac,  1889,  pp.  40,  41. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1879,  pp.  816-817  (The  Signal  Service  Tele- 
graph System)  ;  1882,  p.  785. 

Bryant's  Prose  Works,  2.  257. 

Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  1880,  V.  8  (The  Newspaper  and 
Periodical  Press),  pp.  105-110. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  112. 

MendenhalPs  Century  of  Electricity,  Chap.  5. 

Nicoll's  Great  Movements  (Harper's  ed.),  p.  441. 

Orton's  Telegraph  in  Am. 

Prescott's  Electricity  and  the  Electric  Telegraph. 

Routledge's  Discoveries  and  Inventions  of  the  I9th  Cent., 
P-  397- 

Timbs's  Hist,  of  Wonderful  Inventions,  pp.  341,  361. 

Allan.,  5.  290;  16.  605. 

Chr.  Exam.,  65.  272. 

Ed.  R.,  90.  434  (Am.  ed.,  p.  227).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  23.  433. 

Harper,  47.  322. 

Liv.  Age,  52.  57  ;  58.  826 ;  59.  464. 

Nature,  6.  282  ;  11.  390,  450,  470,  510  ;  12.  30,  69,  no,  149, 
254  ;  36.  326. 

New  Eng.,  16.  790. 

No.  Brit.,  22.  545.     Same,  Eel.  M .,  34.  466. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  3.  401  ;   9.  71  ;  19.  IQI  ;  27.  311. 

Quar.,  95.  118  (Am.  ed.,  p.  62). 

Scrib.  M.3  6.  3. 

TELEPHONE. 

Am.  Almanac,  1889,  p  41. 

Ap  An.  Cyc,  1876,  p.  740;  1877,  p.  706;  1882,  p.  785; 
1884,  p.  307. 


SCIENCE.  417 

Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  127. 

Halt-Hour  Recreations  in  Pop.  Sci.,  2d  S.,  p.  185. 

Mendenhall's  Century  of  Electricity,  Chap.  9. 

Orton's  Telegraph  in  Am.,  pp.  629-632. 

Prescott :  I.  Speaking   Telephone,   Talking   Phonograph,  and 

other  Novelties. 

2.  Electricity  and  the  Electric  Telegraph,  Chap.  41. 
Nature,  14.  30;  16.  403;   17.  48;   18.  698  ;    19.  12,  56,  471  ; 

21.  495  ;  26.  516. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  12.  559;  14.  129;  23.  540. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  15.  848. 
Westm.,  109.  208  (Am.  ed.,  p.  95).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  136.  761. 


27 


41 8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS 


IX.    PHILOSOPHY. 

PHILOSOPHY  is  the  highest  and  profoundest 
product  of  the  human  reason.  It  is  an  account 
of  the  nature  and  causes  of  things,  and  answers  the 
questions,  Why?  and  How?  Hence  its  application 
to  all  subjects,  general  and  particular,  so  that  there 
comes  to  be  a  philosophy  of  mind,  or  psychology; 
moral  philosophy,  or  ethics ;  natural  philosophy,  or 
physics ;  the  philosophy  of  history,  of  literature,  of 
art.  Since  there  is  nothing  without  reason,  there  is 
nothing  without  its  philosophy.  Any  inquiry  into 
the  reason  of  things  is  in  the  nature  of  philosophy. 
Hence  philosophy  is  coextensive  with  human  nature; 
all  men  by  virtue  of  their  reason  are  philosophers. 

But  philosophy  may  also  be  considered,  not  only 
in  its  application  to,  but  in  its  distinction  from,  all 
other  branches  of  knowledge.  In  its  distinctive  form 
and  principle  it  is  the  highest  knowledge,  compre- 
hending and  uniting  all  lower  knowledge.  Hence, 
two  of  its  principal  characteristics  may  be  said  to  be 
comprehension  and  unity.  In  philosophy  are  found 
the  comprehension  and  the  unity  of  all  things ;  and 
this  grand  result  is  required  and  effected  by  the 
reason.  The  one  implies  the  other;  comprehension 
is  in  order  to  unity,  while  unity  requires  comprehen- 
sion. The  comprehensiveness  of  philosophy  shows 
how  all  minor  branches  of  knowledge  proceed  from 
and  are  rooted  in  it,  and  how  it  pervades  them  all, 
and  is  their  reason.  As  a  unity  of  comprehen- 
sion and  of  relation,  the  unity  of  philosophy  is  a 
unity  in  and  from  infinite  multiplicity  and  diversity. 


PHILOSOPHY.  419 

A  secondary  principle  of  philosophy,  and  compre- 
hended under  its  primary  principle  of  unity,  is  that 
of  duality.  This  is  expressed  in  some  of  its  princi- 
pal terms,  which  go  in  pairs ;  such  as  spirit  (or  mind) 
and  matter,  subject  and  object,  being  and  knowing, 
substance  and  phenomena.  These  terms  represent 
subjects  with  which  philosophy  deals.  The  duality 
of  philosophy  gives  occasion  for  a  general  division  in 
systems  of  some  kind,  according  as  one  term  in  any 
of  the  several  pairs  is  divorced  from  the  other,  and 
made  exclusive.  One  of  the  best  known  of  these 
divisions  is  that  of  materialism  and  idealism.  Thus 
to  divide  philosophy  is,  it  is  evident,  to  gain  unity 
at  the  expense  of  comprehension,  and  so  to  make 
a  system  of  philosophy  one-sided  and  false.  Orie  of 
the  chief  problems  of  philosophy  is  to  find  a  compre- 
hensive and  essential  unity,  which  shall  at  the  same 
time  permit  a  necessary  but  subordinate  duality. 

One  of  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  philosophy 
is  that  of  being ;  and  any  system  which  does  not 
make  it  so  cannot  be  profound  or  complete.  The 
rationale  of  knowing  and  the  validity  of  knowledge, 
what  is  reality  and  how  it  may  be  known,  and  the 
relation  between  subject  and  object,  are  subjects  of 
the  first  importance  in  a  system  of  philosophy. 

The  validity  of  philosophy  must  be  first  tested, 
and  then  attested,  by  the  reason  of  which  it  is  the 
product.  Its  fundamental  data  are  indisputable,  and 
are,  in  some  form,  generally  admitted ;  while  in  its 
method  and  conclusions  there  is  diversity,  and  even 
contradictions.  Hence  arise  systems,  conceived  by 
great  thinkers,  which  find  a  place  and  serve  a  pur- 
pose in  the  general  progress  of  thought.  These,  like 
all  human  thought,  are  partial  and  imperfect,  mix- 
tures of  truth  and  error,  yet  on  the  whole  approxi- 
mations, of  various  degrees,  to  the  truth  in  some  of 
its  manifold  aspects. 


42O      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

The  history  of  philosophy,  like  all  history,  is  a 
progress.  In  fact,  philosophy  is  the  highest,  and  the 
most  general  and  abstract,  expression  of  the  thought 
of  any  age.  Its  history  is,  therefore,  the  history  of 
human  thought;  so  that  it  is  partial,  various,  and 
conflicting  as  that  thought,  and,  withal,  as  fruitful  and 
as  full  of  interest  and  of  instruction.  Its  influence  is 
supreme,  universal,  and  permanent.  It  is  the  high- 
water  mark  in  the  progress  of  human  thought.  Yet 
a  philosophy  clear,  profound,  and  comprehensive, 
which  shall  unite  and  harmonize  all  knowledge,  is 
still  a  desideratum,  for  which  the  human  reason 
waits,  longs,  and  labors. 


GREEK  PHILOSOPHY. 

In  language  and  literature,  in  art  and  philosophy, 
the  ancient  Greeks  reached  a  perfection  which  has 
made  them  the  leaders  and  teachers  of  mankind.  In 
reason  and  imagination  they  are  supreme.  In  their 
philosophical  thought  there  is  a  gradual  and  orderly 
development  and  progress,  easily  traceable  in  its  suc- 
cessive systems.  From  nature  it  advances  to  man, 
from  man  it  ascends  to  God ;  from  the  natural  it  pro- 
ceeds to  the  ethical,  from  the  ethical  to  the  divine. 
Its  first  problem  is  natural,  to  determine  the  original 
and  central  principle  of  things;  the  next,  rational 
and  ethical,  that  of  human  knowledge  and  virtue ;  and 
finally,  the  supremacy  of  the  ethical  element  finds  its 
end  in  the  religious. 

The  first  subject  of  inquiry  is  the  objective,  or 
world  of  things;  the  second,  the  subjective,  or  the 
human  mind ;  and  in  the  knowledge  of  himself  and 
of  things  man  finds  himself,  as  the  knower,  the  master 
of  the  known. 

In  this  development  of  thought  contradictions  ap- 


PHILOSOPHY.  42 1 

pear,  which  require  reconciliation  by  a  higher  and 
larger  view;  for  the  need  of  unity  grows  with  the 
advance  of  knowledge.  Unity  is  the  fundamental 
requisite  of  philosophy ;  yet  it  must  be  a  unity  which 
shall  permit  and  include  a  subordinate  multiplicity. 

In  Greek  philosophy,  then,  as  a  whole,  we  have 
profound  systems  of  thought,  carried  on  and  up  from 
one  to  another  stage,  and  together  comprising  the 
various  problems  which  most  excite  the  interest  of 
the  human  mind.  It  has  entered  as  a  vital  element 
into  modern  thought,  and  even  into  Christianity. 

THE   GREEK   SOPHISTS. 

234.  Have  the  Greek  Sophists  been  unduly  depreciated  1 

235.  Are  the  opinions  and  practices  of  the  Greek  Sophists 

incapable  of  vindication  ? 

The  Greek  Sophists  were  teachers,  rhetoricians,  and  phi- 
losophers. In  spirit  they  were  representatives  of  their  age 
in  respect  alike  to  its  intellectual  activity  and  its  tendency 
to  corruption.  In  philosophy  they  made  an  advance  by 
transferring  its  seat  to  the  subject,  or  the  human  mind. 
But  in  making  the  individual  mind  the  measure  of  the 
universe,  they  failed  to  find  a  stable  foundation  for  truth 
and  morals,  so  that  in  their  teaching  these  were  variable 
and  uncertain.  Hence  their  philosophy  was  sceptical,  was 
at  the  best  but  transitional,  and  made  no  deep  and  lasting 
impression.  Lacking  the  essential  elements  of  reality,  the 
objective  and  the  universal,  their  philosophy  was  superficial 
and  suicidal. 

In  order  to  the  establishment  of  a  valid  system  it  became 
necessary  for  Socrates  and  Plato  to  show  the  fallaciousness 
of  the  sophistic  philosophy,  and  in  doing  this  they  carried 
it  to  its  extreme  logical  consequences.  The  judging  of  the 
Sophists  solely  by  certain  characteristics  imputed  to  them 
may  be  found,  on  an  impartial  examination,  not  wholly  just. 
The  later  writers  are  disposed  to  a  less  unfavorable  estimate. 


422       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Benn's  Gr.  Philosophers,  1.  76-107. 

Blackie's  Four  Phases  of  Morals  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  22-27. 
Butler's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  i,  ist  S.,  Lect.  7. 
Cocker's  Christianity  and  Gr.  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  315-316, 

498-500. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  101-102. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  22.  263. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  I,  sec.  54-62. 
Felton's  Greece,  An.  and  Mod.,  1.  229  ,  2.  125. 
Ferrier's  Lect.  on  Gr.  Philos.  (Philosophical  Works,  V.  2),  p. 

185. 

Grant's  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  V.  i,  Ess.  2. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works.  2d  ed.  (Lond.,  1889),  3.  92-93. 
Grote's  Hist,  of  Greece,  V.  8,  Chap.  67. 
Hampden's  Fathers  of  Gr.  Philos  ,  pp.  207-212. 
Hegel's  Logic,  trans.  (Ox.,  1874),  pp.  196-197. 
Jowett's  Dialogues  of  Plato,  trans.   (N.  Y.),  V.   i,  Protagoras 

and  Euthydemus  ;  V.  3,  Gorgias  and  the  Sophist;  also,  In- 

trod.  to  the  Sophist,  3.  426-430. 
Lewes'sHist.  of  Philos.,  Pt.  i,  3d  Epoch. 
Lloyd's  Age  of  Pericles,  2.  292-294. 
Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  pp.  321-324. 
Mahan's  Crit.  Hist  of  Philos.,  1.  203. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  1.  116-122. 
Mayor's  Sketch  of  An.  Philos.,  pp.  23-25. 
Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.,  pp.  601-604,  666-669,  672-674. 
Hitter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  i,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  3,  4. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  sec.  n. 
Stuckenberg's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Philos.  (N.  Y.,   1889), 

pp.  28-29. 
Tennemann's  Man.  of  the  Hist  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1832), 

p.  87. 

Thirlwall's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  519. 
Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  1.  72. 
Zeller:  i.  Socrates,  trans.  (Lond.),  Chap.  9,  C. 

2.  Plato,  trans.  (Lond.),  pp.  183-189. 

3.  Pre-Socratic  Philos.,  trans.   (Lond.),  V.  2.     Third 

Section. 
4-  Outlines  of  the  Hist,  of  Gr.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1890),  sec.  26-29,  P-  88. 
Ed.  R.,  94.  224  (Am.  ed.,  p.  113). 
For.  Q.,  30.  341-348. 
Meth.  Q.,  13.  376. 


PHILOSOPHY. 


SOCRATES. 


423 


236.  Is  philosophy  as  much  indebted  to  Socrates  as  to  Plato  ? 

237.  Should  Socrates  be  held  in  as  high  estimation  as  Plato  ? 

Socrates  is  one  of  the  most  distinct  and  prominent  per- 
sonalities in  all  history.  We  seem  to  become  acquainted 
with  him,  not  so  much  by  what  he  taught  as  by  what 
he  was  in  his  peculiar  characteristics.  Under  an  outward 
garb  of  pleasantry  lay  a  deep-seated  seriousness.  He  had 
an  intellect  alert  and  keen,  original  and  broad;  a  heart 
strong  and  intense,  inspired  with  a  pure  feeling  and  a  lofty 
aim.  With  a  sure  insight  into  the  hearts  and  minds  of 
others,  together  with  a  true  appreciation  of  their  deepest 
wants,  he  devoted  his  life  and  all  that  he  was  to  helping 
them  by  the  promotion  of  their  highest  good.  Thus  his 
aim,  though  high,  was  practical,  being  directed  to  the  pro- 
duction of  an  effect  immediate  and  certain.  Hence  he  is 
known  rather  as  a  man  great  in  wisdom  and  goodness  than 
as  a  philosopher. 

The  moral  was  in  him  supreme,  yet  it  was  well  sustained 
by  the  intellectual.  Philosophy  was  in  him  incarnate  ;  and 
though  not  formally  and  systematically  developed  by  him- 
self, it  appeared  in  all  his  teachings,  and  made  a  profound 
and  lasting  impression.  In  fact,  philosophy  found  in  him 
a  new  beginning,  from  which  its  real  history  and  true  devel- 
opment take  their  rise.  By  directing  attention  to  knowl- 
edge, he  put  philosophy  on  a  new  and  permanent  basis; 
by  instituting  the  method  of  rational  investigation,  he  gave 
it  a  new  impulse  in  the  right  direction.  He  was  the  most 
original  of  men,  and  seemed  less  than  most  great  men  to 
draw  from  others. 

Alcott's  Concord  Days,  p.  234. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  15.  147. 

Benn's  Gr.  Philosophers,  V.  I,  Chap.  3. 

Blackie's  Four  Phases  of  Morals. 

Butler's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  Philos.,  V.  I,  1st  S.,  Lect.  7. 

Capes's  Stoicism  (Chief  An.  Philosophies),  Chap.  I. 


424      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Cocker's  Christianity  and  Gr.  Philos.,  p.  316. 

Collins's  Plato  (An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers),  Chap.  3. 

Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  1.  38-40. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  22.  231 ;  also,  19.  194-195. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  I,  sec.  64-66. 

P^errier's  Lect.  on  Gr.   Philos.  (Philosophical  Works,  V.    2), 

p.    2IO. 

Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  pp.  140-147. 
Gillett's  God  in  Human  Thought,  V.  i,  Chap.  8. 
Grote's  Hist,  of  Greece  (Harper's  ed.),  V.  8,  Chap.  68. 
Hampden's  Fathers  of  Gr.  Philos.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed ., 

20.  369. 
Lord:  i.   Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  I,  Lect.  2. 

2.  The  Old  Rom.  World,  pp.  324-331. 
Lamartine's  Memoirs  of  Celebrated  Characters,  trans.  (N.  Y.), 

2.  5. 

Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.,  1.  219. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  1.  122. 
Mayor's  Sketch  of  An.  Philos.,  pp.  27-35. 
Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit,  pp.  675-683. 

Ritter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  2,  Bk.  7,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  2. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  sec.  12. 
Smith:  i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  3.  851. 

2.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.),  p.  388. 
Stanley's  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Ch.,  V.  3,  Lect  46. 
Stuckenberg's  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1889), 

p.  29. 
Tennemann's  Man.  of  the  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1832), 

pp.  92-98. 

Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  1.  80-88. 
Xenophon's  Memorabilia,  trans. 
Zeller:  i.  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools,  trans. 

2.  Outlines  of  the  Hist,  of  Gr.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y., 

1890),  sec.  3i-34»  P-  101. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  12.  425. 
Bib.  Sac.,  10.  i.         Chr.  R.,  10.  157. 
Cornh.,  9.  576. 

Ed.  R.,  87.  347  (Am.  ed.,  p.  180). 
For.  Q,  30.  331.        Meth.  Q.,  13.  373. 
Quar.,  88.  41  (Am.  ed.,  p.  22).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  28.  398. 
Westm.,  114.  19  (Am.  ed.,  p.  9).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  643. 

(The  Place  of  Socrates  in  Gr.  Philos.     "  In  the  history  of 

philosophy  there  is  none  so  famous.") 

For  references  for  Plato,  see  next  Question,  page  427. 


PHIL  O  SO  PHY.  42  5 


PLATO   AND   ARISTOTLE. 

238.  Is  Plato  a  greater  philosopher  than  Aristotle  ? 

239.  Is  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  on  the  whole,  superior  to  that 

of  Aristotle? 

Plato  and  Aristotle  are,  each  in  his  own  way,  the  great 
masters  of  philosophy.  With  minds  of  large  capacity  and 
wide  range,  they  gathered  up  and  united  the  scattered 
fragments  of  philosophic  thought,  and  placed  philosophy, 
as  the  height  and  the  sum  of  all  knowledge,  on  an  enduring 
basis,  which  secured  its  natural  development. 

Possessed  of  different  minds,  each  is  the  complement 
of  the  other.  They  stand  as  the  two  greatest  and  most 
conspicuous  representatives  through  the  ages  of  two  differ- 
ing classes  of  minds,  which  represent  two  distinct  phases  of 
philosophic  thought,  each  of  great  if  not  of  equal  impor- 
tance. The  philosophy  of  each  affords  a  large  field  for 
fruitful  study ;  only  their  important  characteristics,  their 
general  scope  and  spirit,  which  may  serve  to  determine 
their  relation  to  each  other  and  their  relative  position  in 
general  philosophic  thought,  can  be  considered  in  a  discus- 
sion of  their  respective  merits. 

PLATO. 

Plato  is  known,  chiefly  through  his  writings,  as  the  great 
philosopher.  It  is  his  thought,  more  than  all  things  beside, 
which  has  given  him  his  great  name.  His  style  is,  indeed, 
worthy  of  his  thought ;  but  his  thought,  on  the  other  hand, 
gives  grandeur  and  beauty  to  his  style.  Both  reveal  his 
mind,  and  it  is  this  we  know.  He  is  a  great  mind,  lofty 
and  capacious,  dwelling  apart,  above  the  world  of  mere 
appearance,  in  the  world  of  changeless  ideas. 

He  was  not  a  mere  seerj  yet  he  was,  in  the  highest 
sense,  a  seer.  He  saw  the  invisible.  Truth,  in  its  highest 
and  largest  sense,  was  to  him  the  great  reality.  His  eyes 
were  opened  to  it ;  and,  as  the  light,  it  entered  into  and 


426     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

filled  his  being.  Yet  in  all  this  he  was  not  essentially  dif- 
ferent from  others,  but  only  higher  and  larger.  He  saw 
more,  and  he  saw  more  clearly.  But  many  should  also  see 
as  did  he,  and  that  from  his  seeing.  In  like  minds  his 
vision,  in  various  degrees  of  clearness  and  largeness,  should 
be  repeated.  For  he  is  the  greatest  and  best  representa- 
tive of  the  highest  class  of  minds.  The  loftiest  minds  of  all 
subsequent  ages  —  poets,  artists,  theologians,  philosophers, 
thinkers,  orators  —  have  drawn  from  him  as  their  great 
source  of  inspiration.  In  truth,  he  was  not  a  mere  philos- 
opher ;  he  was  a  great,  wise,  and  good  man. 

In  its  general  spirit,  and  in  some  of  its  great  truths,  his 
philosophy  is  akin  to  Christianity;  and  hence  it  has  had 
much  influence  on  Christianity.  Some  of  the  greatest  of 
the  Church  fathers  were  Platonists. 

While  a  system  may  be  educed  from  Plato's  writings,  he 
himself  did  not  formulate  a  strictly  logical  system.  It  is 
rather  spirit  than  definite  form.  It  is  ideal  or  spiritual, 
and  hence  is  inevitably  somewhat  one-sided,  and  needs  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  to  supplement  it.  In  magnifying 
the  ideal,  it  depreciates  the  sensible.  Plato  gathered  from 
all  sources,  but  to  all  his  abundant  material  he  imparted 
of  the  greatness  and  richness  of  his  own  mind.  In  his 
treatment  of  it  the  philosophy  of  the  past  becomes  the 
philosophy  of  the  future.  Not  only  does  he  give  a  vivid 
portraiture  of  the  personality  of  Socrates ;  he  reproduces, 
develops,  and  adds  to  his  philosophy.  Like  Socrates  he  is 
profoundly  moral.  The  supremacy  of  his  intellect  is  finely 
tempered,  not  only  by  the  richness  of  his  imagination,  but 
by  the  depth  of  his  moral  conviction  and  the  loftiness 
and  purity  of  his  moral  sentiment.  Hence  to  high  and 
subtle  speculation  he  adds  a  practical  aim;  yet  in  him 
the  practical  is  not  didactic,  but  rather  a  suffused  life. 

In  this  harmonious  blending  of  reason  and  sentiment 
in  his  writings  is  found,  to  certain  minds,  their  perennial 
charm.  They  belong,  indeed,  first  and  most  of  all  to  phi- 
losophy, and  yet  scarcely  less  to  literature.  Hence  what- 
ever Plato  was  as  a  philosopher,  it  is  certain  that  he  was 


PHILOSOPHY.  427 

more  than  a  philosopher ;  and  any  estimate  of  him  merely 
as  such  must  be  inadequate.  The  power  of  his  high  thought 
is  in  the  life  with  which  it  is  filled. 

Works,  trans.,  Bohn's  ed. 

Dialogues,  trans.,  with  Introductions  by  Jowett. 

Plato's  Best  Thoughts,  comp.  from  Jowett's  trans.  (N.  Y.). 

Ackermann's  Christian  Element  in  Plato,  trans. 

Alcott's  Concord  Days,  pp.  217-234. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  600. 

Bayne's  Essays  in  Biog.  and  Crit.,  2d  S-,  Chap.  7. 

Benn's  Gr.  Philosophers,  V.  i,  Chap.  4,  5. 

Bunsen's  God  in  Hist.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1868),  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  19. 

Butler's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  2. 

Cocker's  Christianity  and  Gr.  Philos.,  Chap.  10,  n. 

Collins's  Plato  (An.  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers). 

De  Quincey's  Historical  and  Crit.  Essays,  1.  168. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  112-121. 

Emerson's  Representative  Men,  Prose  Works,  2.  21. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  o.th  ed.,  19.  194;  22.  237-238. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  I,  sec.  74-82. 

Felton's  An.  and  Mod.  Greece,  V.  2,  3d  Course,  Lect.  3. 

Ferrier's  Lect.  on  Gr.  Philos.  (Philosophical  Works,  V.  2),  p. 

3°4- 

Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  pp.  147-155. 
Gillett's  God  in  Human  Thought,  V.  I,  Chap.  9. 
Grant's  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  V.  I,  Ess.  3. 
Crete's  Plato,  3  vols. 
Hampden's  Fathers  of  Gr.  Philos.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed., 

17.  783. 
Lewes's  Biographical  Hist,  of  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  Pt  i,  6th 

Epoch. 

Tayler  Lewis's  Plato  against  the  Atheists. 
Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  pp.  33l~33^ 
Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2,  sec.  2. 
Martineau's  Essays,  Philosophical  and  Theological  (Bost.,  1868), 

2.  355- 

Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  1.  138. 
Mayor's  Sketch  of  An.  Philos.,  p.  41. 
Mill's   Dissertations   and    Discussions  (N.  Y.,   1874),  4.  227. 

Same,  Ed.  R.,  123.  297  (Am.  ed.,  p.  153). 
Thos.  Morell's  Elements  of  the  Hist,  of  Philos.  and  Sci.  (Lond., 

1827),  pp.  150,  184,  222. 


428     REFERENCES  SOX  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Bk.  6,  Chap.  2. 
Ritter's  Hist,  of  An.  Phiios.,  V.  2. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Phiios.,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  sec.  14. 
Smith  :  i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  3.  399. 

2.  Hist,  of  Greece  (Felton's  ed.),  pp.  552-553. 
Tennemann's  Hist,  of  Phiios.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1832),  p.  108. 
Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Phiios.,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  1.  98. 
Zeller:   i.  Plato,  trans. 

2.  Outlines  of  the  Hist,  of  Gr.  Phiios.,  trans.  (N.  Y, 

1890),  sec.  39-51,  p.  126. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d.  S.,  12.  434. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  3.  53,  378. 
And.  R.,  15.  353. 
Bib.  Sac.,  2.  527. 

Brit.  O,  54.  1 55  (Am.  ed.,  p.  80). 
Chr.  Exam.,  25.  367;  40.  108. 
Chr.  R.,  22.  507;  23.  547;  24.  187;  26.  369. 
Contemp.,  61.  249. 

Dub.  Univ.,  66.  243,  423.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  87.  70,  241. 
Ed.  R.,  87.321  (Am.  ed.,  p.  167).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  14.  233. 
Ed.  R.,  134.  303  (Am.  ed.,  p.  157). 
Fortn.,  2.  169. 
Fraser,  7.  116. 

J.  Spec.  Phiios.,  4.  225,  320  (Hegel). 
Nation,  12.  291,  306. 
New  Eng.,  28.  639. 
No.  Am.,  83.  67. 

No.  Brit.,  35.  366  (Am.  ed.,  p.  193). 
Presb.  R.,  6.  405-409  (Flint). 

Quar.,  112.  306  (Am.  ed.,  p.  164) ;  131.  492  (Am.  ed,  p.  259). 
Westm,  114.  389  (Am.  ed,  p.  iSS) ;  115.  28  (Am.  ed,  p.  13). 

ARISTOTLE. 

Aristotle,  like  Plato,  is  best  known  in  his  writings.  In 
these  he  put  himself,  — the  wealth  of  his  great  mind, 
the  acuteness  and  subtlety  of  his  marvellous  intellect.  By 
these  he  reigned  in  the  empire  of  thought,  formed  and 
controlled  the  thoughts  of  successive  ages.  To  him  may 
be  traced,  as  their  original  source,  ruling  ideas  in  many 
branches  of  knowledge. 

A  disciple  but  not  a  follower  of  Plato,  he  marked  out 


PHILOSOPHY. 


429 


a  path  for  himself,  brought  to  his  thinking  the  power  and 
precision  of  a  great  and  original  mind,  grasped  at  all 
knowledge,  searched  in  all  things  for  first  principles,  added 
immensely  to  the  treasures  of  philosophic  thought,  and  gave 
philosophy  a  more  definite  and  systematic  form. 

With  less  imagination  than  Plato,  but  with  greater  power 
of  analysis,  he  is  the  most  eminent  example  of  the  scientific 
as  distinguished  from  the  poetic  mind.  His  philosophy  is 
of  a  type  distinct  from  that  of  Plato.  Not  less  universal 
in  its  aim,  it  is  on  a  lower  plane,  dealing  rather  with  the 
actual  than  with  the  ideal ;  hence  what  it  loses  in  breadth 
and  height  it  gains  in  definiteness.  From  the  nature  of 
his  mind  Aristotle  is  more  literal  than  Plato,  and  therefore 
more  apprehensible.  He  gives  the  prose,  Plato  the  poetry, 
of  philosophy.  The  philosophies  of  both  have  an  equal 
claim  to  be  called  philosophy,  but  are  as  different  in  spirit 
as  in  form.  Aristotle  is  intellect,  clear  and  cold.  He  ob- 
serves, analyzes,  generalizes,  speculates,  classifies.  He  has  a 
mind  for  facts,  but  also  for  abstractions.  He  mounts  from 
particulars  to  generals. 

He  undertook  to  systematize  all  knowledge,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  formulating  many  distinct  branches  of  knowledge 
which  remain.  But  while  in  each  of  these  there  is  unity, 
the  principle  which  shall  give  them  all  a  general  unity  is 
wanting ;  hence  his  philosophy,  while  it  has  a  certain  uni- 
versality, lacks  the  equally  important  principle  of  unity. 

His  works  comprise  treatises  on  the  various  branches 
of  human  knowledge,  and  show  a  mind  of  great  compass 
and  versatility.  They  are  on  subjects  some  of  which  would 
not  now  be  considered  as  included  in  philosophy ;  yet 
they  are  treated  in  the  method  and  spirit  of  philosophy, 
and  illustrate  its  universal  scope  and  application. 

It  was  a  mighty  work ;  it  would  seem  the  greatest 
achieved  by  any  single  mind.  For  the  unification  of  all 
knowledge  by  a  principle  of  comprehensive  unity  the  world 
does  not  yet  seem  ready ;  nor  has  the  philosophical  genius 
yet  appeared  who  has  shown  himself  able  to  solve  this  great 
problem. 


430      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Works,  trans.,  Bohn's  ed. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  1.  705. 

Benn's  Gr.  Philosophers,  V.  i,  Chap.  6,  7. 

Blackie's  Four  Phases  of  Morals,  p.  136. 

Bunsen's  God  in  Hist,  V-  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  20. 

Butler's  Lect.  on  the  Hist,  of  Philos.  (Am.  ed.),  V.  2.     Last 

Series. 

Cocker's  Christianity  and  Gr.  Philos.,  Chap.  12. 
Disraeli's  Curiosities  of  Lit.,  1.  209. 

Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  130-135. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  2.  510. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  i.  sec.  83-91. 
Ferrier's  Lect.  on  Gr.   Philos.  (Philosophical  Works,  V.   2), 

p.  366. 

Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  pp.  155-159. 
Gillett's  God  in  Human  Thought,  V.  i,  Chap.  10. 
Grant's  Ethics  of  Aristotle. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works,  2d   ed.  (Lond.,   1889),  3.  46.     Same, 

No.  Brit.,  45.  105. 
Grote's  Aristotle,  2  vols. 
Hampden's  Fathers  of  Gr.  Philos.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed., 

3-  533- 

Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism,  trans.,  1.  80-90. 
Lewes :  i.  Biographical  Hist,  of  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  P-  24!- 

2.  Aristotle :  a  Chapter  from  the  Hist,  of  Science. 
Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.,  V.  i,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2,  sec.  3. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  1.  176. 
Mayor's  Sketch  of  An.  Philos.,  p.  83. 
Thos.  Morell's  Elements  of  the  Hist,  of  Philos.  and  Sci.  (Lond., 

1827),  pp.  155,  194,  226. 

Perry's  Hist,  of  Gr.  Lit.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  Bk.  6,  Chap.  3. 
Ritter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  3. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  sec.  16. 
J.  G.  Smith  and  Grundy's  Aristotelianism  (Chief  An.   Philos- 
ophies). 

Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  1.  333. 
Tennemann's  Man.  of  the  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1832), 

p.  119. 

Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  1.  137-185. 
Wallace's  Outlines  of  the  Philos.  of  Aristotle. 
Whewell's  Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences  (N.  Y.),  1.  65. 
Zeller's  Outlines  of  the  Hist,  of  Gr.  Philos  ,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1890), 

sec.  52-64,  p.  170. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  12.  443  (Compares  Aristotle  with  Plato, 

pp.  452-454)  ;  3^.  S.,  2.  i. 


PHILOSOPHY.  43 1 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  1.  567 ;  2.  64. 

Bib.  Sac.,  1.  39,  290;  34.  228,  514;  35.  255. 

Blackw.,  96.  147. 

Brit.  Q.,  57.  463  (Am.  ed.,  p.  247). 

Dub.  Univ.  R.,  72.  3.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  71,  1165. 

Ed.  R.,  136.  515  (Am.  ed.,  p.  265). 

Ed.  R.,  160.  460.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  163.  707. 

Fortn.,  5.  247 ;  19.  27  (Mill). 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  5.  61,  180,  251  (Hegel). 

Nation,  3.  106. 

Nat  Q.,  3.  316. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  26.  796. 

Presb.  R.,  6.  409-413. 

Westm.,  82.  80  (Am.  ed.,  p.  36)  ;  87.  24  (Am.  ed.,  p.  u)  ;  98. 

98  (Am.  ed.,  p.  45)  ;  103.  84  (Am.  ed.,  p.  38) ;  116.  i,  320 

(Am.  ed.,  p.  169). 


STOICISM. 

240.  Has  the   influence  of  Stoicism  been,  on  the  whole, 

beneficial  ? 

241.  Did  Stoicism,   as    modified  by  its  Roman    teachers, 

show  a  real  approximation  to  Christianity  ? 

Of  all  philosophies  Stoicism  is  the  most  ethical.  Its 
ethics  is  its  substance  and  its  soul,  and  gives  it  character 
and  importance.  Virtue  it  made  the  supreme  end  of  life. 
It  was  thus  profoundly  practical,  and  became  a  religion,  —  a 
religion  consisting  not  in  rites  and  worship,  but  in  a  severe 
simplicity,  in  a  strict  regard  to  duty,  and  in  a  stern  submis- 
sion to  fate.  To  some  of  the  noblest  of  the  Romans,  suited 
as  it  was  to  the  Roman  mind,  it  gave  elevation  and  strength 
of  character. 

Nor  was  it  devoid,  especially  as  set  forth  by  its  great 
Roman  teachers,  of  softer  features.  Giving  to  man  a  su- 
preme value,  it  had  the  sentiment  of  humanity,  by  which  all 
men  are  treated  as  equal.  If  in  its  severer  aspects  it  seems 
narrow,  hard,  cold,  and  unattractive,  as  seen  in  the  pure 
and  lofty  character  of  Aurelius  it  excites  a  high  degree  of 
admiration. 


432      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Bain's  Mor.  Sci.,  p.  99. 
Benn's  Gr.  Philosophers,  V.  2,  Chap.  I. 
Brace,  The  Unknown  God,  Chap.  7-10. 
Capes's  Stoicism  (Chief  An.  Philosophies). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  22.  561  ;  3.  88-89,  Aurelius  ;  8.  471,  Epictetus. 
Epictetus,  Discourses  of,  Long's  trans. 
Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  I.  sec.  97. 
Farrafs  Seekers  after  God  (Seneca,  Epictetus,  Marcus  Au- 
relius). 

Ferrier's  Lect.  on  Gr.  Philos.  (Philos.  Works,  V.  2,)  p.  420. 
Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  pp.  162-178. 
Gillett's  God  in  Human  Thought,  Chap,  n,  16,  17,  19. 
Grant's  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  V.  i,  Ess.  6. 
Hatch's  Influence  of  Gr.  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the  Christian 

Church,  Lect.  6,  8. 
Holland's  Reign  of  the  Stoics. 
Hume's  Philosophical  Works,  V.  3,  Pt.  I,  Ess.  16. 
Inge's  Society  in  Rome  under  the  Caesars,  Chap.  2. 
Jackson's  Seneca  and  Kant  (Dayton,  O.,  1881). 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  1.  186-336.     See  Index. 
Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  8th  Epoch,  Chap.  3. 
Lightfoot's  St  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  8th  ed.  (Lond., 

1888),  pp.  270-328.     (A  good  discussion  of  Stoicism  in  its 

relation  to  Christianity.) 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  pp.  343-345,  349-351. 
Mahaffy's  Gr.  Life  and  Thought  from  the  Age  of  Alex,  to  the 

Rom.  Conquest  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1887),  pp.  139-142. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  9.  1032-1041. 
Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.,  1.  295. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Meditations  of,  Long's  trans. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  1.  238-243,  250-251,  266-274, 

293-299. 

Merivale's  Hist,  of  the  Romans  (N.  Y.),  6.  190-196. 
Plutarch's  Morals,  trans.  (Bost,  1878),  4.  372,  426. 
Ritter's  Hist,  of  An.  Philos.,  V.  3,  Bk.  u  ;  V.  4,  Bk.  12,  Chap.  3. 
Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea,  trans.  (Lond., 

1801),  l.  113-120,  V.  2,  Chap.  20. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  sec.  17. 
Seneca,  Epistles  of,  trans,  by  Thos.  Morell  (Lond.,  1786). 
Smith  :   i.  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Biog.,  2.  31  (Epictetus). 

2.  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (Am.  ed.,  Bost.,  1883),  4.  3115. 
Tennemann's  Manual  of  the  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Ox.,  1832), 

pp.  141-150,  164-167. 
Uebenveg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  1.  185-200. 


PHILOSOPHY.  433 

Watson's  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  Chap.  6,  7. 
Wuttke's  Christian  Ethics,  1.  131-144. 

Zeller :  i.  The  Stoics,  Epicureans,  and  Sceptics,  trans.,  Pt.  2. 
2.  Hist,  of  Eclecticism  in  Gr.  Philos.,  trans.,  Chap   3 

8,9. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  4.  560.         Blackw.,  44.  129. 
No.  Am.,  102.  599.  Westm.,  117.  33  (Am.  ed.,  p.  16). 


MODERN    PHILOSOPHY. 

Modern  philosophy  makes  a  new  beginning;  but 
it  begins  where  ancient  philosophy  ends,  with  man, 
and  is  less  objective  and  more  subjective  than  an- 
cient philosophy. 

It  shares  the  field  with  two  other  forms  of  general 
thought, —  with  theology,  which  begins  with  God,  and 
with  science,  which  begins  with  nature.  Yet,  so  far  as 
these  aim  to  be  universal,  they  partake  of  philoso- 
phy and  become  philosophical.  Philosophy  holds  its 
place,  not  as  opposed  to  theology  and  science,  but 
as  underlying  and  testing  them,  and  as  showing  their 
validity  and  reason. 

Modern  philosophy  is  larger  than  ancient  philos- 
ophy, as  the  modern  world  is  larger  than  the  an- 
cient world.  It  is  the  summit  of  modern  thought; 
and  modern  thought  is  more  comprehensive  and 
more  general  than  ancient  thought.  If  there  are 
not  greater  thinkers,  there  are  more.  Hence  the 
intensity  of  modern  thought  and  life.  The  outward 
-activity  is  but  the  result  of  the  inward. 

Modern  philosophy  has,  therefore,  both  more  data 
and  more  problems.  Christianity  is  not  more  in- 
debted to  philosophy  than  philosophy  to  Christianity. 
Science  has  also  much  enlarged  and  modified  philos- 
ophy. The  two  great  modern  philosophers,  Descartes 
and  Kant,  were  devoted  as  well  to  science  as  to  phi- 
losophy. Both  undertook  the  clarifying  of  knowl- 

28 


434    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

edge,  the  one  by  establishing  its  certainty  and  its 
triumph  over  doubt,  the  other  by  showing  its  valid- 
ity and  its  ground. 

Science  furnishes  the  objective  element  of  modern 
thought;  but  its  data  are  not  universal,  and  therefore 
cannot  afford  an  adequate  objective  for  philosophy. 
Hence  the  empirical  philosophy,  which  most  nearly 
corresponds  to  science,  lacks  the  depth  and  compre- 
hension of  idealism. 

The  old  problems  take  on  new  phases,  and  nev\ 
problems  emerge.  Conflicting  elements  and  systems 
find  an  approximate  unity  in  a  larger  view.  A  larger 
toleration  allows  more  freedom ;  liberty  of  thought 
promotes  its  development;  and  its  progress  is  to- 
ward the  goal  of  universal  comprehension  and  com- 
plete unity. 

DESCARTES. 

242.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Descartes,  in  its  general  spirit 

and  main  features,  entered  as  a  permanent  element 
into  modern  philosophy  ? 

243.  Has  Descartes  contributed  more  to  theology  than  to 

science  ? 

244.  Is  Descartes' s  proof  of  the  existence  of  God  valid  ? 

245.  Is  Descartes 's  inference  of  being  from  thought  legit- 

imate ? 

The  nature  and  intrinsic  importance  of  Descartes's  phi- 
losophical system,  taken  with  the  time  of  its  appearance, 
make  it  the  beginning  of  modern  philosophy.  It  was  a 
new  beginning  of  philosophical  thought.  It  was  original, 
profound,  and  comprehensive. 

Dissatisfied  with  the  prevailing  thought,  Descartes  struck 
out  for  himself  a  new  path.  The  foundation  of  his  system 
he  laid  deep  and  strong  in  the  human  mind  itself.  Doubt, 
in  his  system,  prepares  the  way  for  certain  knowledge, 
which  is  found  in  self-consciousness.  Thinking,  though  it 


PHIL  OSOPHY.  43  5 

be  doubt,  implies  the  thinker  \  and  this  is  the  sure  begin- 
ning from  which,  by  synthetic  deduction,  is  derived  all 
truth.  For  the  thinker  is  a  subject  for  all  objects,  and 
thus  reflects  in  his  thought  the  world  of  truth. 

The  idea  of  the  perfect  being  corresponds  to  the  reality 
of  God,  who  alone  is  its  adequate  cause.  Sensation  im- 
plies outward  objects,  of  which  it  gives  the  knowledge. 
The  characteristic  of  mind  is  thought,  of  body  extension ; 
and  since  the  two  have  nothing  in  common  they  constitute 
a  dualism.  God  is  the  one  absolute  substance,  who  has 
created  beings  and  things  as  relative  substances  depend- 
ent on  himself. 

Descartes  had  a  mathematical  and  scientific,  as  well  as  a 
philosophical  or  metaphysical  mind.  He  was  not,  there- 
fore, a  mere  speculator,  but  aimed  at  precision  of  thought, 
and  conducted  scientific  experiments.  Ethics  he  did  not 
fully  develop,  but  laid  its  foundation  in  the  doctrine  of  free 
will,  to  which  he  attributes  error.  The  theological  element 
of  his  system  is  found  in  his  doctrine  concerning  God  ;  while 
the  scientific  element  is  found  in  his  thoughts  respecting 
nature. 

Diverse  elements  entered  into  the  system  without  being 
fully  united;  and  these  constituted  the  germs  for  future 
systems,  particularly  of  the  systems  of  Malebranche  and  of 
Spinoza.  But  Descartes  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  phi- 
losophy in  his  fundamental  principles,  that  doubt  should  be 
made  the  condition  of  knowledge,  and  that  certain  knowl- 
edge begins  with  self-consciousness. 

The  Method,  Meditations,  and  Selections   from  the  Principles 

of  Descartes,  trans.,  with  Introd.,  8th  ed.  (Edin.  and  Lond., 

1881). 
Descartes,  Meditations,  trans.,  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  4.  16,  129,  210, 

304;  5.  97. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  6.  36. 
Bowen's  Mod.  Philos.,  Chap.  2,  3. 
Edward  Caird's  Crit.  Philos.  of  Immanuel  Kant  (N.  Y.,  1882). 

1.  76-79. 
Courtney's  Early  Idealists.     From  Descartes  to  Leibnitz.     Lib. 

of  Philos.  (Lond.). 


436      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  2.  90-93. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  7.  115;  also,  5.  142. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  V.  2,  sec.  266- 

269. 
Kuno  Fischer's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.    Descartes  and  his  School, 

trans.  (N.  Y.,  1887). 
Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  trans.,  by  Max  Miiller.     Lud- 

wig  Noire's  Hist.  Introd.,  p.  113. 
Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Lib.  ed.  (N.  Y.),  1875,  Pt.  2,  2d  Epoch, 

Chap.  i. 
Mahaffy's  Descartes  (Philosophical  Classics  for  Eng.  Readers), 

Edin.,  1881. 

Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.  (Lond.),  2.  92-97. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.  (Lond.,  1872),  291-323. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  in  the  i9th  Cent  (N.  Y.,  1851),  Pt.  I, 

Chap.  2,  sec.  i. 

Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1872),  sec.  24. 
Leslie  Stephen's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Thought  in  the  i8th  Cent.,  2d 

ed.  (N.  Y.,  1881),  1.  19-30. 
Stewart's  Dissertation,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  2,  sec.  2.    Collected  Works 

(Edin.,  1854),  1.  112-141.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed., 

1.  56-70. 
Ed.  R.,  95.  i. 

Macmil.,  22.  69.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  75.  30. 
No.  Am.,  56.  81-88. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  14.  302. 

LOCKE. 

246.  Has  the  influence  of  Locke's  philosophy  been  greater 

than  its  intrinsic  worth  ? 

247.  Does  the  practical  merit  of  Locke's  philosophy  atone 

for  its  want  of  breadth  and  comprehension  ? 

Considering  the  general  character  and  tendency  of  his 
system,  together  with  its  influence,  Locke  was  practically 
the  founder  of  the  empirical  school  of  philosophy.  His 
aim  he  avows  to  be  "  to  inquire  into  the  original,  cer- 
tainty, and  extent  of  human  knowledge." 

Beginning  with  the  refutation  of  the  doctrine  of  innate 
ideas,  he  affirms  that  all  ideas  are  gained  from  experience ; 
ideas  of  the  outward  world  by  sensation,  of  the  mind  itself 


PHILOSOPHY.  437 

by  reflection  or  self-consciousness.  Locke's  philosophy  is 
thus  really  psychology,  since  its  subject  is  only  the  human 
mind ;  and  he  has  been  called  the  founder  of  empirical 
psychology. 

His  importance  in  the  history  of  modern  philosophy  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  his  system  is  the  source  whence 
have  proceeded,  not  only  subsequent  empirical  systems, 
but  the  idealism  of  Berkeley,  the  scepticism  of  Hume,  and 
even  in  a  measure  the  critical  philosophy  of  Kant.  His 
philosophy  entered  deeply  and  widely  into  English  thought, 
scientific,  sceptical,  and  theological.  It  suited  the  English 
mind,  not  high  or  mystical  but  clear,  not  profound  but 
practical.  It  was  timely.  It  fell  in  with  the  current 
thought  of  the  age,  gave  it  form  and  expression,  and  be- 
came thus  its  representative.  It  represents,  not  the  whole 
of  philosophy,  nor  the  higher  philosophy,  but  its  lower  side, 
its  materialistic  or  practical  aspect.  If  neither  high  nor 
deep,  it  is  at  least  clear,  apprehensible,  and  practical.  It 
is  therefore  adapted  to  certain  minds,  and  has  its  place  in 
general  philosophy ;  not,  indeed,  as  absolute  truth,  but  as  a 
phase  of  truth  of  much  practical  importance,  with  a  mixture 
of  error,  which  appears  in  its  development  in  subsequent 
systems,  as  well  as  in  its  testing  by  higher  truth. 

Bourne's  Life  of  Locke  (N.  Y.,  1876),  2  vols.  ;  Works  (Lond.), 

2  vols.;  Works  (Lond.),  4  vols. 
Locke's  Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  566. 
Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  V.  2,Lect. 

15-25- 

Encyc.  Brit.,  14.  751. 

Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  V.  2,  sec.  280. 
Fowler's  Locke  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  8, 12. 
A.  C.  Eraser's  Locke.     Philosophical  Classics  (Edin.,  1890). 
Hough's  Sensationalists,  from  Locke  to  Mill.     Lib.  of  Philos. 

(Lond.). 
Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  trans,  by  Max  Muller,  V.  I, 

Ludwig  Noire's  Historical  Introd  ,  p.  229. 
Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism,  trans.  (Bost.,  1881),  1.  318-324. 
Leibnitz's  Critique  of  Locke,  trans.,  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  19.  275. 


438      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,.Lib.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  Pi.  2,  3d  Epoch, 

Chap.  2. 

Mahan's  Crit  Hist,  of  Philos.  (Lond.),  2.  48. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.  (Lond.,  1872),  2.  440-448. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  in  the  ipth  Cent.  (N.  Y.,  1851),  Pt.  I, 

Chap,  i,  sec.  2. 

Morris's  Brit.  Thought  and  Thinkers  (Chicago,  1880),  Chap.  7. 
Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  sec.  28. 
Dugald  Stewart:  i.  Dissertation,  Part  2,  sec.   i.      Collected 
Works   (Edin.,    1854),  1.  206.      Same, 
Encyc.  Brit.,  Sth  ed.,  1.  100. 
2.  Philosophical  Essays,  Part  i,  Ess.  i,  3. 

Collected  Works  (Edin.),  V.  5. 
Leslie  Stephen's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Thought  in  the  i8th  Cent.,  2d  ed. 

(N.  Y.,  1881),  1.  34-38- 

Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1874),  2.  79-88. 
Blackw.,  39.  796.         Brit.  Q.,  5.  289. 
Ed.  R.,  99.  383.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  32.  389.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

41.  435- 

Meth.  Q.,  3.  609. 
No.  Am.,  29.  78-90. 

KANT. 

248.  Does  Kanfs  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  give   a  true 

account  of  the  origin  and  limitations  of  knowledge 
in  the  human  mind? 

249.  Do  Kanfs  writings,  taken  together,  afford  a  self -con- 

sistent and  positive  philosophical  system  ? 

250.  Was  Kant  a  greater  philosopher  than  Descartes  ? 

Kant's  writings  mark  an  important  epoch  in  modern 
philosophy.  By  his  comprehensive,  thorough,  and  decisive 
treatment  of  the  fundamental  problem  of  knowledge,  he 
made  a  great  advance  upon  his  predecessors,  and  provided 
matter  and  form  for  succeeding  systems.  He  produced  a 
revolution  in  philosophic  thought,  not  as  superseding  all 
previous  thought,  but  as  adding  to  and  essentially  modify- 
ing it.  The  general  method  of  this  new  thought  is  critical, 
as  opposed  to  the  dogmatic  and  the  sceptical.  Like  Des- 
cartes's  certainty  from  doubt,  it  is  negative  in  order  to  a 
true  positive. 


PHILOSOPHY.  439 

What  Kant  showed  was  the  part  which  the  human  mind 
has  in  knowledge.  He  showed  the  relation  and  mutual 
dependence  of  subject  and  object,  in  opposition  to  the  as- 
sumption of  their  independence.  The  object  is  to  the  sub- 
ject what  it  is  in  the  conscious  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
and  not  what  it  is  in  itself.  What  the  object  is  in  itself,  as 
independent,  the  mind  does  not  know ;  it  can  only  know  it 
in  its  relation  to  itself  through  its  phenomena. 

The  mind  furnishes  the  form  or  necessary  conditions  of 
knowledge.  Space  and  time  are  not  objective,  but  sub- 
jective forms  of  sense ;  the  twelve  categories  are  pure  con- 
ceptions of  the  understanding.  The  ideas  of  the  reason  — 
the  world,  the  soul,  and  God  —  are  not  known  as  objective 
realities,  but  are  regulative  principles ;  yet  the  subjective 
assurance  of  the  realities  corresponding  to  these  is  afforded 
by  the  practical  reason.  Ethics  has  thus  an  important  place 
in  the  system. 

Though  not  congruous  in  all  its  parts,  Kant's  system  of 
philosophy  is,  to  an  unusual  degree,  original  and  profound 
in  its  conception,  and  comprehensive  in  its  scope.  It  car- 
ries forward  the  subjective  tendency  of  modern  philosophy, 
but  has  added  greatly  to  its  weight  and  influence.  Its  aim 
is  to  show  the  limits  and  establish  the  validity  of  knowledge. 
Thus  it  has  both  a  negative  and  a  positive  element ;  but 
whether  on  the  whole  the  negative  does  not  preponderate 
over  the  positive  may  be  a  question. 

Stuckenberg's  Life  of  Kant  (Lond.,  1882). 

The  Philos.  of  Kant  as  contained  in  Extracts  from  his  own 
Writings.  Selected  and  trans,  by  John  Watson  (Glasgow, 
1888). 

Kant's  Crit.  Philos.  for  Eng.  Readers,  by  Mahaffy  and  Bernard, 
2  vols.,  new  ed.  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1889).  V.  i,  The  Cri- 
tique explained  and  defended.  V.  2,  The  Prolegomena 
translated. 

Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason :  — 

1.  Trans,  by  Meiklejohn  (Lond.,  1860). 

2.  Trans,  by  Max  Miiller  (Lond.,  1881),  2  vols.     V.  i,  His- 

torical   Introd.   by   Ludwig   Noire.      V.    2,    Trans,   of 
Critique. 


440      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

3.  Stirling's   Text-Book   to   Kant.      The    Critique   of   Pure 

Reason:    Esthetic,    Categories,    Schematism,    Trans- 
lation, Reproduction,  Commentary. 

4.  Morris's  Kant.     The  Pure  Reason.     A  Crit.  Exposition 

(Chicago,  1882).     German  Philosophical  Classics. 
Kant's  Prolegomena  :  — 

1.  Trans,  by  E.  B.  Brax  (Lond.,  1883). 

2.  Trans,  of  App.  to  Prolegomena,  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  14.  i. 
Kant's  Ethics :  — 

1.  The  Metaphysics  of  Ethics,  trans,  by  J.  W.  Semple,  3d  ed. 

(Edin.,  1871). 

2.  The  Critique  of  Practical  Reason,  and  other  Works  on  the 

Theory  of  Ethics.     Trans,  by  T.  K.  Abbott,  3d  ed.,  rev. 
(Lond.,  1883). 

3.  Kant's  Ethics.     A  Crit.  Exposition  by  Noah  Porter  (Chi- 

cago, 1886).     Ger.  Philosophical  Classics. 
Kant's  Anthropology,  trans.,  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  13.  280. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  757- 

Edward  Caird's  Crit.  Philos.  of  Im.  Kant  (N.  Y.,  1889),  2  vols. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  13.  844. 
Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.,  1891),  V.  2,  sec.  297- 

302,  pp.  365-428. 
Lange's  Hist,  of  Materialism,  trans.  (Bost.,  1880),  V.  2,  Bk.  2, 

ist  sec.,  Chap.  i. 

Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Lib.  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1875),  Pt.  2,  8th  Epoch. 
McCHntock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  5.  n. 
Mahan's  Crit.  Hist,  of  Philos.  (Lond.),  2.  108. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.  (Lond.,  1872),  2.  619-637. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Philos.  in  the  i9th  Cent.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  Pt.  i, 

Chap.  2,  sec.  3. 
Pfleiderer's  Development  of  Theology  in  Germany  since  Kant, 

trans.  (Lond.,  1890),  Bk.  i,  Chap.  i. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1223. 

Schwegler's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  sec.  38. 
Seth,  The  Development  from  Kant  to  Hegel  (Lond.  and  Edin. 

1882). 
Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1876),  V.  2,  sec.  121- 

124. 

Wallace's  Kant,  Philosophical  Classics  (Edin.,  1882). 
Watson's  Kant  and  his  Eng.  Critics  (N.  Y.,  1881). 
Ed.  R.,  157.  i. 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  3.  133. 

Ethics  :  J.  Spec.  Philos.,  5.  27,  108,  289;  8.  339  ;  10.  416. 
Interpretation  and   Criticism    of   Critique:    J.    Spec.    Philos., 

6.  222  ;  8.  305. 


PHIL  0  SO  PHY.  44 1 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  14.  49,  257,  353  (Stirling)  ;  15.  274,  360  ;  17. 

225  (Kuno  Fischer). 
Meth.  Q.,  5.  43. 

New  Eng.,  31.  249.         No.  Am.,  49.  44. 
Princ.,  N.S.,  8.  394.         Westm.,  115.  343  ;  118.  121. 


INDUCTIVE  REASONING. 

251.  Is  inductive  reasoning  the  best  method  of  arriving  at 

truth? 

252.  Has  the  relative  importance  of  inductive  reasoning, 

as  a  method  of  arriving  at  truth,  been  overrated  in 
modern  times  ? 

The  close  identification  of  the  principle  of  induction  with 
natural  science,  as  an  important  means  in  its  development, 
has  raised  it  to  a  high  place  as  an  instrument  of  modern 
thought.  This  fact  makes  it  of  the  first  importance  clearly 
and  well  to  understand  its  nature  and  function,  its  scope  and 
its  limitations. 

It  is  the  ascent  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  in  op- 
position to  deduction,  which  is  the  descent  from  the  general 
to  the  particular.  The  two  go  together ;  and  their  mutual 
relation  and  respective  use  are  an  important  point,  respect- 
ing which  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion. 

Induction  has  for  its  basis  the  outward,  the  objective,  the 
concrete ;  and  it  is  doubtless  this  solid  foundation,  which 
goes  far  toward  accounting  for  its  high  credit  for  certainty. 
But  it  must  not  be  hastily  assumed  that  the  certainty  of  the 
premise  is  wholly  maintained  in  the  conclusion.  This  mani- 
festly depends  on  the  process;  and  in  the  performance, 
and  especially  in  the  accounting  for  this,  there  may  be  a 
difficulty. 

The  process  is  the  induction,  or  the  inferring  of  the  gen- 
eral from  the  particular ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  validity 
of  the  conclusion  and  the  validity  of  the  process  must  be 
coincident.  But  the  process  is  performed  by  the  individual 
mind.  How,  then,  does  any  mind  pass  from  the  particular 
to  the  general  ?  Is  the  passage  inexplicable  ?  Or,  as  some 


442      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

think,  is  the  gulf  leaped  by  an  intuition  or  an  immediate  see- 
ing of  the  general  of  which  the  particular  is  a  suggestion  ? 
Or  is  it  rather  a  judgment  in  accordance  with  a  general  pos- 
tulate, such  as  the  uniformity  of  nature  ?  Whence,  then,  is 
the  postulate?  and  what  is  its  validity?  The  nature  and 
scope  of  induction  will  differ  according  to  the  difference  of 
philosophy,  whether  empirical  or  intuitional,  the  one  mak- 
ing it  more  objective,  the  other  more  subjective. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  what  share  has  induction  in  the  dis- 
covery even  of  scientific  truth?  And  how  far  may  it  be 
employed  in  the  attainment  of  the  higher  truths  of  philos- 
ophy, of  ethics,  and  of  religion  ? 

Bacon:  i.  Novum  Organum :  Works,  Spedding's  ed.  (N.  Y.), 
V.  8;  also,  V.  I,  Gen.  Pref.  to  Philosophical 
Works,  and  Gen.  Pref.  to  Nov.  Or. 

2.  Fowler's  ed.  of  the  Novum  Organum. 

3.  Fowler's  Bacon  (Eng.  Philosophers  S.),  Chap.  4,  6. 

4.  Church's  Bacon  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  8. 

5.  Lewes's  Hist,  of  Philos. :  Bacon  (N.  Y.,  1875),  PP- 

402-434. 

6.  Macaulay's  Essays:  Bacon  (N.  Y.),  3.  435-484. 
Bain's  Logic,  Bk.  3. 

Balfour's  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt,  Chap.  2,  3. 

Buckle's  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1871),  pp.  182-202. 

Cooke's  Credentials  of  Science  the  Warrant  of  Faith,  pp.  4-6, 

12-13,  26-27,  29-33,  43,  93-95,  158-159. 
De  Morgan's  Formal  Logic,  Chap.  II. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  15.  538,  sec.  12. 
Eucken's  Fundamental  Concepts  of  Mod.  Philosophic  Thought, 

trans.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  34-80  :  Experience,  esp.  pp.  48-56. 
Everett's  Science  of  Thought,  p.  295. 
Fleming's  Vocabulary  of  Philos.,  art.  Induction. 
Fowler's  Elements  of  Inductive  Logic. 
T.  H.  Green's  Works  (Lond.,  1886),  2.  281. 
Hamilton's  Lect.  on  Logic.     See  Index,  Induction. 
Levi  Hedge's  Logic  (Bost.,  1834),  Pt.  3,  Chap.  3. 
Janet's  Final  Causes,  App.  No.  I. 
Jevons's  Principles  of  Science,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  7. 
Mill's  Logic,  Bk.  3. 

Porter's  Human  Intellect,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  8. 
Schuyler's   Empirical  and  Rational  Psychology,  Div.  3,  Chap. 

22-25. 


PHILOSOPHY.  443 

Sidgwick's  Fallacies.     See  Index,  Induction. 

Smithsonian  Rep.,  1870,  p.  258. 

Stewart's  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  Pt.  2,  ist  subdiv.,  Chap. 

4.     Collected  Works  (Edin.,  1854),  V.  3. 
Whately's  Logic,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  2,  3. 
Whewell:   I.  Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 

2.  Philos.  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 
Wright  :  I.  Logic  of  Chr.  Evidences,  Pt.  i. 

2.  Studies  in  Science  and  Religion,  Chap.  i.    Same, 

New  Eng.,  30.  601. 
Am.  J.  Sci.,  55.  33. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  15.  50  (Jan.,  1866). 
Chr.  R.,  5.  194. 
Cornh.,  12.  296. 
Fortn.,  20.  457  (Jevons). 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  10.  307,  337  ;  11.  i. 
Meth.  Q.,  14.  431. 
New  Eng.,  40.  741. 
No.  Am.,  119.  431. 
No.  Brit.,  28.  101  (Am.  ed.,  p.  55). 
Quar.,  45.  374. 
Westm.,  39.  412  (Am.  ed.,  p.  220). 


OPTIMISM  AND  PESSIMISM. 

253.    Is  there  more  ground  for  the  philosophy  of  Optimism 
than  for  the  philosophy  of  Pessimism  ? 

Optimism  represents  the  good,  pessimism  the  evil,  found 
each  in  nature  and  man,  in  character,  life,  and  literature. 
These  make  a  plain  duality,  of  which  philosophy  must  some- 
how make  a  unity.  This  optimism  does  by  making  good 
positive  and  absolute,  and  evil  negative  and  relative  ;  whence 
good  is  supreme  and  eternal,  evil  subordinate,  exceptional, 
and  temporary.  Pessimism,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  evil 
predominant,  brings  it  to  the  foreground,  makes  it  the  end 
of  good. 

Optimism  virtually  makes  evil  good,  pessimism  good 
evil ;  yet  in  their  nature  and  relation  they  seem  to  be  not 
only  distinct  and  opposite,  but  antagonistic.  Their  nature 


444      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

and  relation  are  involved  in  the  question,  and  must  be  de- 
termined. Natural  and  moral  good  and  evil  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished,  and  not  confounded. 

Optimism  is  essentially  ideal,  requiring  faith  and  beget- 
ting hope ;  while  pessimism,  making  more  of  the  actual, 
tends  rather  to  scepticism  and  despair.  •  Yet  the  practical 
end  of  pessimism  has  been  made  the  renunciation  of  self 
and  of  the  world,  in  which  seems  to  be  implied  the  real 
good  of  the  spirit. 

The  real  burden  assumed  by  both  optimism  and  pessi- 
mism is  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil.  This  problem 
optimism  undertakes  to  solve  by  including  evil  in  the  phi- 
losophy of  good,  and  thus  making  good  its  solvent ;  while 
pessimism  would  make  a  philosophy  out  of  evil  itself. 
The  solution  of  optimism  seems  incomplete  and  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  that  of  pessimism  a  failure. 

Optimism  in  magnifying  good  is  likely  too  much  to  min- 
imize evil,  while  pessimism  in  magnifying  evil  is  likely  too 
much  to  minimize  good.  Thus  in  their  influence  the  two 
may  be  somewhat  complementary,  balancing  each  other. 

Bowen's  Mod.  Philos.,  pp.  104-109  (Leibnitz's  System  of  Op- 
timism); pp.  413-419  (Schopenhauer's  Pessimism). 

Bushnell's  Moral  Uses  of  Dark  Things. 

Cook's  Orthodoxy,  p.  208.     Same,  Independent,  1877,  May  10, 
p.  4- 

Dewey's  Problem  of  Human  Destiny,  esp.  Lect.  2. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  18.  684  (Pessimism)  ;  21.  448  (Schopenhauer). 

Erdmann's  Hist  of  Philos.,  trans.,  2.  625-626;  3.  241-244. 

Farrar's  Eternal  Hope,  Ser.  2. 

Flint:  i.  Theism,  Lect.  7,  8. 

2.  Anti-Theistic  Theories,  Lect.  8 ;  also,  App.  No.  33. 

Hartmann's   Philos.  of  the    Unconscious,    trans,  by   Wm.    C. 
Coupland  (N.  Y.,  1884),  V.  3,  Chap.  13. 

Hedge's  Atheism  in  Philos.,  and  other  Essays,  pp.  51,  123. 

Hodge's  Systematic  Theology,  1.  419,  432-433,  566;   2.  145 
(Refutes  a  certain  theory  of  Optimism). 

Janet's  Final  Causes,  App.  No.  6. 

Ladd's  Introd.  to  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  pp.  382-386. 

Lord's  Nat.  and  Revealed  Theology,  Nat.  Theol.,  Chap.  20. 

Lubbock's  Pleasures  of  Life. 


PHILOSOPHY. 


445 


McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  7.  390,  995  ;  10.  317. 

Mallock's  Is  Life  Worth  Living?  Same,  igih  Cent.,  2.  251; 
3.  146. 

The  Value  of  Life :  A  Reply  to  Is  Life  Worth  Living  ? 

Martensen's  Chr.  Ethics  (Edin.,  1873),  sec.  51-58,  pp.  164-169. 

Martineau's  Study  of  Religion,  V.  2,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  3. 

Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea,  trans.,  2d  ed. 
(Lond.,  1891),  V.  3,  Chap.  46.  Same,  but  different  transla- 
tion, Select  Essays,  trans.  (Milwaukee,  1881),  p.  29  (The 
Misery  of  Life);  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea,  1.  401-420, 
V.  3,  Chap.  28. 

Sully's  Pessimism,  rev.  ed. 

Tulloch's  Theism,  sec.  4. 

And.  R.,  3.  197  (Optimism  in  the  Bible),  12.  565. 

Atlan.,45.  195. 

Contemp.,  18.  67;  19.  775. 

Independent,  1879,  Apr.  10,  p.  14. 

Internat.  R.,  12.  564. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  20.  187. 

Meth.  Q.,  36.  487. 

Nation,  28.  401 ;  29.  81. 

No.  Am.,  117.  37. 

O.  and  N.,  3.  167. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  11.  682. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  1.  492. 

Spec.,  59.  68 1.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  107.  117. 

Westm.,  105.  124  (Am.  ed.,  p.  58). 


MIND  FORCE  AND  PHYSICAL  FORCE. 

254.  Is  all  the  force  manifested  in  the  material  universe  to 

be  attributed  to  the  immediate  volition  of  God? 

255.  Is  mind  the  only  real  force,  and  the  first  cause  of  all 

motion  ? 

This  subject  comprises  as  its  terms,  requiring  explanation, 
force,  motion,  cause,  and  will.  In  the  exercise  of  will  man 
becomes  conscious  of  the  origination  of  force,  showing  that 
it  is  of  mind ;  and  this  gives  him  the  idea  of  cause.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  inertia  of  matter  requires  an  extraneous  force 
or  cause  to  set  or  keep  it  in  motion,  or  to  change  or  stop  its 
motion. 


446      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Either,  then,  matter  is  mere  force ;  or  force  is  power  or 
cause,  which,  in  various  forms,  produces  the  diversified  phe- 
nomena of  matter ;  or  it  is  the  will  of  God  immediately  and 
universally  exercised. 

From  the  unity  of  force  as  demonstrated  by  science  it  is 
easy  to  pass  to  the  will  of  God  as  its  sufficient  and  clear  ex- 
planation. This  is  a  simple  and  adequate  solution  of  the 
problem,  and  shows  definitely  what  force  is.  But  the  ques- 
tion will  arise  whether  matter,  by  being  thus  denuded  of  its 
essential  properties,  is  not  destroyed  as  a  distinct  entity. 
Or  whether,  matter  being  too  much  idealized,  from  another 
view  God  may  not  seem  to  be  too  much  materialized. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  may  be  material  forces  or  sec- 
ond causes  distinct  from,  yet  not  absolutely  independent  of 
God,  as  Almighty  and  the  First  Cause. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Argyll's  Reign  of  Law  (N.  Y.),  pp.  120-128. 
Berkeley's  Siris,  sec.  154,  Works  (Ox.,  1871),  2.  419-420. 
Birks's  Mod.  Physical  Fatalism  (Lond.,  1876),  Chap.  10. 
Bowen  :  i.  Lowell  Lect.  on  the  Application  of  Metaphysical  and 
Ethical   Science   to  the  Evidences  of   Religion, 
ist  Course,  Lect.  4,  7. 
2.  Gleanings  from  a  Lit.  Life,  p.  164,     Same,  Princ., 

N.  s.,  3.  615. 
Bowne,  The  Philos.  of   Herbert  Spencer    (N.  Y.,   1874),  pp. 

111-127. 
Carpenter  :  i.  Mental  Physiology,  Chap.  20. 

2.  Nature  and  Man.  (N.  Y.),  Ess.  12.     Same,  Mod. 
R.,  1.  4-     Same,  Liv.  Age,  144.  323.     Same, 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  16.  614. 
Saml.  Clarke's  Evidences  of  Nat.  and  Revealed  Religion,  Prop. 

14,  Works,  fol.  ed.,  2.  697  ;  also,  3.  418. 
Cocker's  Theistic  Conception  of  God,  Chap.  6,  7. 
Jos. -Cook's  Biology,  pp.  269-270. 
The  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,  ed.  by  Youmans 

(N.  Y.,  1865),  pp.  15-18;  also,  p.  199  (Grove). 
Herschell's    Familiar   Lect.  on    Scientific    Subjects,   Lect.    12. 

Same,  Fortn.,  1.  435. 

Martineau:  i.  Essays  Philosophical   and   Theological  (Bost.), 
1.  121.     Same,  Nat.  R.,  11.  482. 


PHILOSOPHY. 


447 


Martineau :  2.  A  Study  of  Religion,  V.  i,  Bk.  2,  Chap,   i,  sec. 
3-5,  pp.  217-254;  also,  2.  162-166. 

3.  Christianity  and    Mod.   Thought    (Am.  Unita. 

Assoc.,  1871),  p.  206. 

4.  O.  and  N.,  6.  54,  156. 

Stewart's   Philos.  of  the  Active  and  Moral  Powers  of  Man, 

2.  28-30.     Collected  Works,  V.  7. 

Tulloch's  Theism  (N.  Y.,  1856),  sec.  i,  Chap.  3 ;  also,  p.  93. 
Wesley's  Works  (N.  Y.),  2. 178-179. 
Nat.  R.,  4.  393-394- 
Oberlin  R.,  9.  25. 
Unita.  R.,  6.  621. 
University  Q.,  2.  40. 

NEGATIVE. 

Hodge's  Systematic  Theol.,  1.  591-613. 

Porter's  Human  Intellect,  sec.  595-599,  pp.  582-588. 

Jas.  Richards's  Lect.   on  Mental  Philos.  and  Theol.   (N.  Y., 

1846),  Lect.  6-8. 

Strong's  Systematic  Theol.,  pp.  54-55,  203. 
Bib.  Sac.,  5.  342. 
Meth.  Q.,  39.  642. 


THOUGHT  AND   LANGUAGE. 

256.  Is  thought  possible  without  language  ? 

257.  Is  language  identical  with  thought? 

Thought  in  this  question  must  be  regarded  as  a  concept, 
and  as  excluding  the  percept  and  sensation.  The  language 
must  consist  of  words,  but  they  may  be  unuttered,  or  merely 
thought. 

The  relation  between  thought  and  language  is  a  most  in- 
teresting subject  of  study.  Are  they  so  related  as  to  be  in- 
separable, the  one  being  the  inner,  the  other  the  outer  side 
of  the  same  thing? 

Thought  may  be  considered  as  the  soul  of  language,  and 
language  as  the  body  of  thought ;  but  the  soul  is  more  than 
the  body,  and  thought  than  language.  Language  is  not 
commensurate  with  thought,  is  not  always  its  adequate 
expression. 


448      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Language  has  its  end  in  thought,  and  thought  in  itself. 
Language  gives  to  thought  form,  objectiveness,  defmiteness, 
clearness,  permanency ;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  its  develop- 
ment or  progress. 

Since  language  is  not  only  a  general  but  an  individual 
instrument  of  thought,  each  mind  gives  to  words  a  meaning 
in  accordance  with  its  own  thought;  so  that,  as  no  two 
minds  have  precisely  the  same  thoughts,  to  no  two  minds 
do  the  same  words  have  precisely  the  same  meaning.  Lan- 
guage is,  therefore,  flexible  to  thought,  so  that  words  come 
to  have  various  meanings  and  shades  of  meaning. 

On  the  whole,  if  thought  must  be  considered  as  distinct 
from  language,  can  it  with  equal  confidence  be  pronounced 
to  be  in  any  case  independent  of  it  ? 

Argyll'^  What  is  Truth?  (N.  Y.),  pp.  19-25. 

Bushnell's  God  in  Christ  (N.  Y.,  1877).     Prelim.   Dissertation  : 
Language  as  related  to  Thought  and  Spirit. 

Fowlers  Deductive  Logic,  Introd.,  Chap.  3. 

Hamilton's  Lect.  on  Logic  (N.  Y.,  1860),  pp.  98-99. 

Locke's  Human  Understanding,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  2,  sec.  i  ;  Bk.  4, 
Chap.  5,  sec.  4,  5. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  Bk.  5,  Chap.  3. 

Miiller:  i.  Sci.  of  Language,  1.  383  ;  2.  72-85. 
2.  Sci.  of  Thought  (N.  Y.),  2  vols. 

Porter's  Human  Intellect,  sec.  382,  p.  386. 

Shedd's  Discourses  and  Essays  (And.,  1856),  p.   181.     Same, 
Bib.  Sac.,  5.  650  ;  8.  491. 

Stewart's  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  1.  175  ;  2.  97-98.     Col- 
lected Works  (Edin.,  1854),  V.  2,  3. 
-Thomson's  Laws  of  Thought  (N.  Y.),  sec.  17,  23-28. 

Whitney  :  i.  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language,  pp.  405- 

421. 
2.  Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies,  1.  285-286. 

And.  R.,  12.  666. 

Brit.  Q.,  77.  400  (Am.  ed.,  p.  204). 

Contemp.,  40.  474  (M  tiller).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  111.  771. 

Contemp.,  40.  807  (Argyll,  Ans.  to  Miiller). 

1 9th  Cent.,  25.  397  (Miiller,  Ans.  to  Argyll). 

Contemp.,  54.  806. 

Nature,  36.  28,  52,  100  (Miiller  and  Galton)  ;  124,   171,  397 
(Miiller). 


PHILOSOPHY.  449 


New  Eng.,  25.  411. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  32.  213. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  7.  104. 


IMAGINATION   AND   REASON. 

258.  Is  the  imagination  more  potent  in  its  influence  than 

the  reason  ? 

259.  Are  men  in  general  as  much  influenced  by  reason  as 

by  imagination  ? 

IMAGINATION. 

In  order  to  an  intelligent  estimate  of  the  influence  of 
the  imagination,  it  is  necessary  first  of  all  to  ascertain  its 
nature  and  its  relative  position  among  the  faculties  of  the 
mind.  It  represents,  pictures,  combines,  idealizes,  creates. 
It  works  with  and  aids  the  other  faculties.  It  is  not  to 
be  considered  as  merely  a  part  of  the  mind,  but  as  the 
mind  itself  working  in  this  particular  way ;  hence  it  partakes 
of  the  general  scope  and  power  of  the  mind  as  a  whole. 
Nevertheless  it  has  distinct  characteristics,  by  which  it  may 
be  known  in  and  for  itself. 

Its  highest  and  largest  exercise  is  in  art  and  in  litera- 
ture ;  and  through  these  its  influence  is  supreme,  universal, 
and  perpetual.  In  a  much  less  though  in  an  important 
degree  it  holds,  in  mathematics,  science,  and  philosophy, 
a  place  secondary  to  reason.  Different  minds  possess  it 
in  various  degrees  ;  of  genius  it  is  one  of  the  chief 
characteristics. 

Abercrombie's  Inquiries  concerning  the   Intellectual   Powers, 

Pt.  3,  sec.  5-8. 

Addison's  Spectator,  Nos.  411-421. 
Bain's  Education  as  a  Science,  pp.  124-127. 
Bascom's  Science  of  Mind,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3,  sec.  5-8. 
Beecher's  Yale  Lect.  on  Preaching,  3.  305-306. 
Blackie's  Self-culture  (N.  Y.)  :    Intellect,  Chap.  6,  7,  pp.  22-30. 
Carpenter's  Mental  Physiology,  Chap.  12. 
Emerson's  Letters  and  Social  Aims,  p.  I. 

29 


450      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Fleming's  Vocabulary  of  Philos. 

E.  H.  Hamilton's  Human  Mind,  Chap.  38. 

Sir  Wm.  Hamilton's  Lect.  on  Metaphysics,  Lect.  33. 

Haven's  Mental  Philosophy,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  2. 

Hazlitt's  Table  Talk,  2d  S.,  Ess.  34.     Misc.  Works  (Philad.), 

V.  2,  Pt.  2,  p.  179  (On  Reason  and  Imagination). 
Holland's  Gold  Foil,  Chap.  20  (Vices  of  Imagination). 
Wm.  James's  Principles  of  Psychology  (N.  Y.,  1891),  V.  2, 

Chap.  18. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  453. 
MacDonald's  Imagination,  and  Other  Essays,  p.  I. 
Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  pp.  230-239. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  2.  153-156. 
Porter's  Human  Intellect,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  6. 
Ruskin's  Mod.  Painters,  V.  2,  sec.  2. 

Schuyler's  Empirical  and  Rational  Psychology,  Div.  2,  Chap.  5. 
Stewart's  Elements  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind,  V.  I, 

Pt.  i,  Chap.  7  (Collected  Works,  V.  2). 
Tucker's  Light  of  Nature,  V.  I.     Human  Nature,  Chap.  12. 
Whipple's  Success  and  its  Conditions,  p.  185  (The  Tricks  of  the 

Imagination). 
Chr.  R.,  10.  511. 
Fortn.,  31.  62. 

Liv.  Age,  87.  145  ;  91.  643  ;  141.  620. 
No.  Am.,  85.  223  (The  Imagination  in  Mathematics). 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  11.  455. 
Putnam,  11.  301. 

REASON. 

The  term  reason  is,  in  its  meaning  and  use,  somewhat 
indefinite  and  various;  but,  if  used  in  its  most  general 
sense,  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  imagination  as  the 
power  and  activity  of  the  mind  in  thinking  and  knowing, 
and  as  including  both  the  intuitive  and  the  logical  faculty. 
Taken  in  this  general  sense  it  would  seem  comprehensive 
of  the  mind.  Indeed,  the  reason  is  the  mind,  and  the 
mind  is  reason,  yet  the  mind  is  more  than  reason.  But 
may  not  reason,  taken  in  any  sense,  be  considered  as  the 
supreme  faculty  of  the  mind,  which  turns  all  things  into  a 
world  of  thought  ?  Of  philosophy,  science,  and  mathemat- 
ics it  is  the  creator  and  the  soul,  and  in  all  human  thought 
and  creations  it  has  an  important  part. 


PHILOSOPHY.  45 1 

The  subject,  though  in  its  nature  philosophical,  has  a 
practical  side,  which  is  made  prominent  in  the  second 
question. 

Abercrombie's   Inquiries  concerning  the  Intellectual   Powers, 

Pt.  3,  sec.  4. 

Bascom's  Science  of  Mind,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  4. 
Beecher's  Yale  Lect.  on  Preaching,  3.  304. 
Blackie's  Self-culture  (N.  Y.,  1874),  Chap.  4,  5,  pp.  14-22. 
Fleming's  Vocabulary  of  Philos. 
E.  H.  Hamilton's  Human  Mind,  Chap.  39. 
Sir  Wm.  Hamilton's  Lect.  on  Metaphysics,  Lect.  34-40. 
Haven's  Mental  Khilos.,  Pt.  3,  4. 
Hopkins's  Outline  Study  of  Man,  Lect.  4. 
Wm.  James's   Principles  of   Psychology  (N.  Y.,   1891),  V.  2, 

Chap.  22. 

Mahan's  System  of  Intellectual  Philos.,  Chap.  12. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  2.  156-157. 
Tucker's  Light  of  Nature,  V.  i.     Human  Nature,  Chap.  26. 
Whewell's  Elements  of  Morality,  V.  i,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  i. 
Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  7.  322. 
Internat.  R.,  5.  326. 


452      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


X.    ETHICS. 

T^THICS,  though  a  branch  of  philosophy,  has  dis- 
fj  tinctive  characteristics  and  a  province  of  its 
own.  The  moral  is  distinct  from  the  physical,  from 
the  intellectual,  and  from  the  aesthetic*.  The  physi- 
cal is  the  material  or  visible,  the  intellectual  is  of  the 
reason,  the  aesthetic  of  the  imagination,  the  moral 
of  the  conscience.  Of  all  these  the  moral  is  high- 
est, and  gives  law  to  all.  It  raises  all  to  a  higher 
plane.  The  physical  is  made  a  means  to  subserve 
a  higher  end  ;  the  reason  finds  in  the  perfect  good  its 
highest  end;  and  beauty  reaches  its  perfection  in 
moral  character.  The  moral  is  distinct  from  and 
higher  than  the  natural ;  truth  has  a  deeper  meaning 
as  moral ;  the  moral  law  is  the  law  of  liberty  and  of 
love. 

The  supreme  and  central  principle  of  the  moral  is 
love.  All  other  moral  priitiples  are  subordinate  to 
and  included  in  this.  In  this  the  moral  attains  its 
height,  its  beauty,  its  perfection.  Love  is  itself  the 
supreme  good,  making  all  things  good.  All  good  is 
in  and  from  it.  It  is  truth,  it  is  life,  it  is  the  source 
and  the  sum  of  good.  As  moral,  love  thus  gains  a 
significance  large  and  high. 

The  natural  is  the  base,  the  moral  the  crown ;  yet 
the  moral  is  not  of  the  natural,  but  is  original.  The 
natural  finds  in  the  moral  its  counterpart  on  a  higher 
plane.  Hence  the  natural  is  the  symbol  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  moral ;  and  the  moral  gives  meaning, 
elevation,  and  a  higher  use  to  the  natural. 


ETHICS.  453 

The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  moral  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word \fcligation.  Every  moral  being 
affirms  for  himself  that  n'e^ught  to  do  this,  and  that 
he  ought  not  to  do  that.  Here  appear  two  oppo- 
site and  contradictory  conceptions,  the  right  and  the 
wrong;  and  in  the  choice  of  one  or  the  other  of 
these  alternatives  human  freedom  finds  its  exercise. 
Hence  the  moral  has  respect  especially  to  human 
character  and  conduct  as  right  or  wrong. 

In  this  it  is  individual,  and  gets  its  particular  form 
from  personal  characteristics.  The  moral  is  thus 
in  its  principle  general,  but  in  its  individual  form 
particular  and  infinitely  various.  But  there  is  not 
only  an  individual  but  a  social  morality,  regulating 
the  various  and  complex  relations  of  individuals  in 
society. 

The  moral  \sflrogressive.  The  moral  ideal,  the 
highest  of  all  ioeals;isilHtfc>  goal  of  all  moral  effort. 
Toward  this  presses  the  true  progress  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  of  the  world.  The  world  is  growing  not 
only  in  knowledge,  but  in  love.  Love,  with  its  be- 
neficent sway,  is  gaining  a  deeper  hold  of  the  human 
heart.  And  this  lifts  men  up,  inspires  and  unites 
them,  and  will  make  truth  and  happiness  universal. 

FREE  WILL. 

260.  Is  the  human  will  free  t 

261.  Is  the  power  of  contrary  choice  a  necessary  element  in 

the  freedom  of  the  will? 

262.  Does  Edwards' s  Inquiry  respecting  the  Freedom  of  the 

Will  lead  to  conclusions  false  and  untenable  ? 

Free  will  as  an  ethical  question,  that  is,  considered  in 
its  relation  to  right  and  wrong,  is  one  of  practical  interest 
and  of  supreme  importance,  and  has  received  an  exhaustive 
discussion. 


454      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

By  its  advocates,  it  is  held  to  be  a  plain  and  indisputa- 
ble fact  of  consciousness.  Every,*nan,  they  say,  knows  in 
himself  that  he  is  free,  with"J'an'  assurance  as  clear  as  that 
by  which  he  knows  his  own  existence ;  that  is,  he  knows 
himself  as  possessing  the  power  of  choice,  of  choosing  one 
from  two  or  more  objects  or  ways  which  may  be  before  his 
mind.  Every  man  who  violates  the  obligation  imposed  by 
his  conscience,  and  does  wrong,  knows  in  himself  that  he 
might  have  fulfilled  it  and  have  done  right. 

In  this  power  of  contrary  choice,  which  is  implied  in  the 
exercise  of  the  will  in  its  relation  to  right  and  wrong,  is 
found  the  basis  of  moral  responsibility,  and  the  reason  for 
the  praise  and  blame  of  the  conscience.  Conscience,  there- 
fore, is  an  unimpeachable  witness  to  this  alternative  power 
of  the  will.  All  moral  distinctions  are  founded  on  it.  All 
moral  law,  divine  and  human,  depends  on  it.  Punishment 
finds  in  it  its  reason  and  justification.  In  short,  the  moral, 
in  its  very  idea,  implies  it :  jvjthnui-  it,  it  would  have  no 
meaning. 

This  is  a  strong  plea  for  free  will,  and  seems  overwhelm- 
ing. Yet  it  is  not  all  that  can  be  said.  What  determines 
the  will?  If  it  be  said  that  it  is  self-determined,  this  affords 
no  reason  for  its  decision.  The  question  will  then  be,  what 
leads  it  to  determine  itself  in  one  way  rather  than  in  an- 
other? Here  comes  in  the  influence  of  motives  in  deter- 
mining the  will.  The  action  of  the  will  is  in  accordance 
with  certain  motives,  which  are  its  reasons  for  acting; 
hence  its  action  is  not  arbitrary,  or  without  reason.  Motives 
do  not,  indeed,  move  the  will  like  a  physical  force,  for  it  is 
not  capable  of  being  thus  moved.  The  will  is  spiritual, 
and,  as  such,  in  some  sense  moves  freely ;  yet  it  may,  not- 
withstanding, have  a  cause,  other  than  itself,  of  its  move- 
ment in  a  certain  direction,  and  this  gives  its  action  a 
certainty.  Thus,  the  good  man  is  morally  certain  to  act 
right,  and  the  bad  man  wrong.  Either  may  change ;  but 
even  if  he  should,  for  this  change  there  must  be  some 
reason. 

Habitual  moral  action,  then,  is  in  accordance  with  char- 


ETHICS.  455 

acter,  either  good  or  bad;  and  character  is  such  a  com- 
mittal or  bias  of  the  will  as  renders  its  action  certain.  In 
confirmed  character,  if  the  power  of  contrary  choice  exist, 
it  remains  unexercised.  Does,  then,  the  freedom  of  the 
will,  in  such  a  case,  consist  in  a  power  certain  never  to  be 
exercised?  The  will,  it  is  plain,  is  not  always  on  a  poise 
between  good  and  evil,  so  that  in  every  act  it  makes  a 
choice  which  it  will  do.  On  the  contrary,  its  choice  tends 
to  a  stronger  degree  of  fixity,  and  its  corresponding  action 
to  a  higher  degree  of  certainty. 

And  the  good  man,  as  he  becomes  better  or  more  fixed 
in  goodness,  becomes  more  free,  is  influenced  by  larger 
and  higher  motives,  and  gains  more  control  of  himself; 
while  the  bad  man,  as  he  grows  worse,  becomes  ever  less 
free,  acting  less  from  reason,  and  being  more  driven  by 
passion  and  appetite,  so  that  in  a  real  and  proper  sense 
his  will  becomes  enslaved.  The  will,  then,  is  not  a  mere 
power  in  man  to  choose  this  or  that,  right  or  wrong,  or  a 
mere  vis  a  tergo  to  determine  or  to  make  the  man.  In  an 
important  sense  it  is  as  the  man,  having  his  limitations  and 
acting  from  his  character. 

Allen's  Jonathan  Edwards  (Am.  Rel.  Leaders  S.),  Third  Period, 

Chap.  2. 

Bain's  Emotions  and  the  Will. 
Bascom:  i.  The  Sci.  of  the  Mind,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  8. 
2.  The  Philos.  of  Religion,  pp.  132-152. 
Bledsoe's  Examination  of  Edwards  on  the  Will. 
Bowen's  Lowell  Lect.  on  Met.  and   Eth.  Sci.  (Bost,   1849), 

ist  Course,  Lect.  5,  6. 

Buchner's  Force  and  Matter,  trans.  (Lond.,  1870),  Chap.  20. 
Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  V.  I,  Chap.  I,  2. 
Cairns's  Treatise  on  Moral  Freedom. 
Calderwood's  Handbook  of  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt.  3. 
Cutler's  Beginnings  of  Ethics,  Chap.  15,  16. 
Day's   Inquiry  concerning  the  Self -determining  Power  of  the 

Will. 

Dewey's  Psychology,  Pt.  3. 

Edwards's  Inquiry  concerning  the  Freedom  of  the  Will. 
The  Younger  Edwards's  Works,  V.  I. 
Emerson's  Conduct  of  Life,  Ess.  i,  Fate. 


456      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8.  608. 

T.  H.  Green:    i.   Prolegomena  to  Ethics  (Ox.,  1884),  Bk.  2, 

Chap.  i. 

2.   Works  (Lond.,  1886),  2.  307. 
Grote's    Minor    Works  (Lond.,    1873),    PP-  32I~324-      Same, 

Westm.,  85.  32-35. 
Sir  Wm.  Hamilton:   i.   Lect.  on  Metaphysics,  Lect.  40,  pp. 

556-558- 
2.   Discussions  (Bost.   ed.),  pp.    586-590. 

Same,  Philos.  of  Hamilton  (N.  Y.), 

pp.  507-5I5- 

Haven's  Mental  Philos.,  Div.  3. 
Hazard:  i.  Freedom  in  Willing. 

2.  Letters   to    Mill  on   Causation  and   Freedom   in 

Willing. 

3.  Man  a  Creative  Cause. 

Hegel's  Logic,  trans.  (Ox.,  1874),  pp.  227-228,  243. 

Hobbes's  Questions  concerning  Liberty,  Necessity,  and  Chance. 

Eng.  Works  (Lond.,  1841),  V.  5. 
Hodge's  Systematic  Theol.,  V.  2,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  9. 
Hume:   i.  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  Bk.  2,  Pt.  3.     Philos. 
Works,  V.  2. 

2.  Inquiry  concerning  Human  Understanding,  sec.  8. 

Philos.  Works,  V.  4. 

3.  Huxley's  Hume  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  10. 

4.  Knight's  Hume  (Philos.  Classics),  sec.  B,  Chap.  6. 
Janet's  Theory  of  Morals,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  6. 

Kant's  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Metaphysic  of  Morals, 

trans,  by  Abbott,  sec.  2,  3. 

Ladd's  Introd.  to  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  pp.  296-305. 
Lotze:  i.  Microcosmus,  trans.,  3d  ed.,  2  vols.  in  i,  1.  251-261. 
2.  Practical  Philos.,  trans,  by  G.  T.  Ladd  (Bost.,  1885), 

Chap.  3. 
Locke's  Essay  concerning  the  Human  Understanding,  Bk.  2, 

Chap.  21. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  903  (Necessity)  ;   10.  189 

(Will). 

Martineau's  Study  of  Religion,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  2. 
Maudsley:  i.  Body  and  Will. 

2.  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  the  Mind,  Pt.  i, 

Chap.  7. 
Mill:  i.  System  of  Logic,  Bk.  6,  Chap.  2. 

2.  Examination  of  Sir  Wm.   Hamilton's    Philos.,  V.   2, 
Chan.  26. 


ETHICS. 


457 


Moffatt's  Comparative  Hist,  of  Religions,  Pt.  i,  Chap,  i,  sec.  2, 3. 

Muller's  Doctrine  of  Sin,  trans.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  i. 

Porter's  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Chap.  3,  6. 

Pressensd's  Study  of  Origins  (N.  Y.),  Bk.  4,  Chap,  i,  sec.  3, 

P-  393- 

Reid's  Essays  on  the  Active  Powers  of  Man,  Ess.  4. 
Schuyler's  Empirical  and  Rational  Psychology,  Pt.  3. 
Sidgwick's  Methods  of  Ethics,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  5. 
Spurzheim's  Phfenology  (Bost,  1835),  2:  119-123. 
Stewart's   Philos.  of  the  Active  and  Moral  Powers.     App.,  Of 

Man's  Free  Agency.     Collected  Works  (Edin.,  1855),  V.  6. 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Psychology  (N.  Y.),  V.  i,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  9. 
Shedd's  Dogmatic  Theol.,  V.  2,  Anthropology,  Chap.  3. 
Sully's  Outlines  of  Psychology,  Chap.  13,  14. 
Tappan:   i.  Review  of  Edwards's  Inquiry. 

2.  Doctrine  of  the  Will  determined  by  an  Appeal  to 

Consciousness. 

3.  Doctrine  of  the  Will  applied  to  Moral  Agency. 
Upham's  Treatise  on  the  Will. 

West's  Essay  on  Moral  Agency  (1794). 

Whedon's  Freedom  of  the  Will  as  a  Basis  of  Human  Responsi- 
bility and  Divine  Government. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  ist  S.,  7.  330 ;  11.  553.  2d.  S.,  2.  381  ;  9.  33. 
3d  S.,  1.  709- 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  14.  123. 

Bib.  Sac.,  21.  634. 

Brit.  Q.,  80.  389.    t 

Chr.  R.,  8.  221,  367. 

Fortn.,  3.  587-588. 

Independent,  1890,  Mar.  13,  p.  3. 

J.  Chr.-l^ilos.,  V.  i,  Art.  X. 

Lit.*anS*Theo.  R.,  1.  521  ;  2.  148. 

Liv.  Age,  146.  634. 

Mind,  5.  30,  116,  226,  264;  10.  532. 

Meth.  Q.,  4.  61 ;  6.  598  ;  24.  595  ;  25.  284. 

Meth.  R.,  49.  9  (Edwards  on  the  Will). 

New.  Eng.,  5.  337;  18.  307;  24.  285;  38.  831. 

New  York  R.,  3.  319. 

No.  Am.,  109.  376. 

No.  Brit,  52.  93. 

Penn.  Mo.,  8.  435. 

Pop.  Sci.  yrrUT745.' 

Princ.,  N.  S.,  2.  329;   4.  328. 

Westm.,  96.  68  (Am.  ed.,  p.  32)  ;   100.  304  (Am.  ed.,  p.  144)- 


458      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


CONSCIENCE. 

263.  Is  conscience  a  true  moral  guide} 

264.  Can  conscience  be  educated? 

Conscience  is  that  in  man  which  makes  him  distinc- 
tively moral.  It  is  the  moral  sense  or  faculty.  Hence  it 
is  that  which  knows,  responds  to,  and  accepts  the  binding 
force  of,  the  moral  law.  It  enjoins  the  law;  and  this 
enjoining  it  enforces  by  an  inward  reward  of  approval  for 
obedience,  and  by  an  inward  penalty  of  condemnation  for 
disobedience. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  assumed  that  the  conscience  is 
but  a  part  of  the  mind,  whose  limits  and  function  can  be 
strictly  defined  as  distinct  from  other  parts ;  it  is  the  mind 
itself  as  moral.  Hence  it  is  both  intellectual  and  emotive. 
As  intellectual  it  is  intuitive,  or  the  affirming  by  the  reason 
of  the  moral  law.  This  law  is  the  comprehensive  moral 
rule;  but  for  its  application  there  is  required  an  act  of 
judgment,  which  is  another  intellectual  operation  of  the 
conscience.  These  functions  of  conscience  are,  indeed, 
moral  as  well  as  intellectual ;  they  are  the  intellectual  side 
of  the  moral.  As  emotive,  the  conscience  gives  approval 
with  peace,  or  pronounces  condemnation  accompanied  with 
remorse.  These  several  functions  of  conscience  require,  in 
its  discussion,  discrimination,  that  it  may  be  undjgrstc 
what  sense  it  is  used. 

As  reason  gives  to  man  the  truth  requiring  his  assent^1 
conscience  gives  the  moral  law  requiring  his  obedience. 
As  much,  then,  as  conscience  stands  for  the  moral  law  in 
man,  it  is  his  mv\£sd-gaJ4e.  But,  like  reason,  it  is  indi- 
vidual ;  hence  come  many  subordinate  variations  from  the 
absolute  principle.  These  variations,  however,  arise  chiefly 
from  the  differences  of  judgment  with  respect  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  general  principle  to  particular  cases. 


^•i 

Alexander's  Outlines  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Chap.  i-u. 
Bain,  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  15. 


ETHICS.  459 

Birks's  First  Principles  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Lect.  12. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Mor.  Philos.,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  7. 

Butler's  Fifteen  Sermons,  Ser.  2,  3. 

Calderwood's  Handbook  of  Mor.  Philos.,  pp.  77,  139-271. 

Cutler's  Beginnings  of  Ethics,  Chap.  7-11. 

Chalmers's  Adaptation  of  Nature  to  the  Mor.  and  Intel.  Con- 
stitution of  Man,  Pt.  I,  Chap,  i  (Bridgewater  Treatise). 

Dymond's  Essays  on  the  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  I,  Chap.  6. 

Fairchild's  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  8. 

D.  H.  Hamilton's  Autology,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  i. 

Hopkins's  Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law,  Pt.   i,  Div.  i, 
Chap.  12. 

Kant:  i.  Metaphysics  of  Ethics,  trans,  by  Semple  (Edin.,  1836), 

Pt.  I,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3. 

2.  Critique  of  Practical  Reason,  and  other  Works  re- 
lating to  the  Theory  of  Ethics,  trans,  by  T.  K. 
Abbott  (Lond.,  1883),  pp.  311,  321. 

Ladd's  Introd.  to  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1890),  pp.  305-315. 

Lieber's  Polit.  Ethics,  V.  i,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  3. 

Martensen's  Chr.  Ethics,  trans.,  p.  356,  sec.  117-120. 

Maurice,  The  Conscience. 

Paley's  Principles  of  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  5. 

Porters  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Chap.  16. 

Reid's  Essays  on  the  Active  Powers  of  the  Human  Mind,  Ess.  3, 
Chap.  8. 

Stewart's  Philos.  of  the  Active  and  Mor.  Powers  of  Man,  Bk.  2, 
Chap.  2-6. 

Jeremy  Taylor's  Ductor_pubitantium,  Bk.  i,  2. 

Walter's  Sermons  preached  in  the  Chapel  of  Harvard  College, 
Ser.  9,  p.  135. 

Wayland's  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Bk.  i,  Chap.  2-6. 

Whately's  Lessons  on  Morals,  etc.,  Less.  i. 

Wuttke's  Chr.  Ethics,  trans.,  V.  2,  sec.  78. 

Bib.  Sac.,  13.  229;  24.  150. 

Chr.  R.,  12.  369. 

New  Eng.,  14.  243;   42.  400. 

Princ.,  N.  S.,  3.  671  ;    6.  138. 


460      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


DECEPTION   AND   LYING. 

265.  Is  it  ever  right  to  deceive  ? 

266.  Is  falsehood  never  justifiable  ? 

Veracity  is  a  virtue  of  the  first  importance ;  yet  lying,  in 
some  form  and  degree,  is  but  too  common.  If  a  strict 
regard  for  truth  is  ever  to  be  departed  from,  it  must  be  in 
some  case  of  urgent  necessity,  which  shall  prove  an  allowa- 
ble exception.  In  such  cases  there  is  some  element  which 
makes  the  want  of  veracity  not  criminal,  just  as  there  may 
be  the  taking  of  life  which  is  not  murder.  Strategy  in  war, 
for  example,  may  be  employed  by  a  truthful  man,  with  no 
diminution  of  his  habitual  truthfulness,  or  impairment  of 
the  general  confidence  of  others  in  him.  Spies  in  war  and 
detectives  for  the  discovery  of  crime  must,  from  the  nature 
of  the  case,  use  deception  largely.  They  plan  to  deceive, 
pretend  to  be  what  they  are  not,  enter  for  the  time  upon  a 
course  of  deception,  that  they  may  secure  an  end  regarded 
as  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  which  can  be  gained  only 
in  such  a  way. 

The  question  is  one  of  interest  and  of  practical  impor- 
tance, concerning  which  there  is  some  variance  of  opinion 
among  the  authorities  quoted.  On^  thing  is  certain,  no 
deception  is  allowable  which  shall  tencf  to  impair  flic 
supreme  importance  of  truth. 

Blackie's  Four  Phases  of  Morals  (N.  Y.,  1872),  pp.  48-50. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Mor.  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1846),  pp.  380-393. 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  2,  Chap.  6. 

Fairchild's  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt.  2,  2d  Div.,  Chap.  12. 

Hickok's  Mor.  Sci.,  3d  ed.,  pp.  121-123- 

Hopkins's  Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law,  7th  ed.,  p.  199. 

Lotze's  Prac.  Philos.,  trans.  (Bost.,  1885),  Chap.  6,  sec.  45. 

Mahan's  Mor.  Philos.,  Pt  2,  Chap.  12. 

Milton's  Chr.  Doctrine.  Prose  Works,  Bohn's  ed.  (Lond  , 
1853),  5.  115-119. 

Newman's  Apologia  Pro  Vita  Sua,  5th  ed.  (N.Y.,  1868),  App. 
VIII.,  pp.  355-384  (Lying  and  Equivocation.  Cites  nu- 
merous authorities). 


ETHICS. 


461 


Paley's  Mor.  and  Polit.  Philos.,  Bk.  3,  Pt.  I,  Chap.  15. 

Porter's  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  10. 

Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea,  trans.,  1.  438-439. 

Vattel's  Law  of  Nations,  Bk.  3,  sec.  177,  178. 

Wayland's  Elements  of  Mor.  Sci.,  Pt.  2.     Of  Veracity,  Chap.  i. 

Whewell's  Elements  of  Morality,  V.  I,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  9,  15. 

Atlan.,  12.  732. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.,  7.  (Apr.)  14  (Kant). 

Nation,  2.  796,  825  ;    3.  17  ;   7.  167. 

New  Eng.,  1.  184;  2.  503;  3.  66. 

No.  Am.,  153.  115. 

Temple  Bar,  27.  215.     Same,  Ev.  Sat.,  8.  435. 


INSANITY   AND   RESPONSIBILITY. 

267.  Does    insanity    always  preclude    all  moral  respon- 

sibility? 

268.  Is  insanity  ever  consistent  with  amenability  to  pun- 

ishment 1 

This  subject  belongs  to  ethics,  to  mental  pathology,  and 
to  criminal  law.  The  first  shows  the  conditions  and  limits 
of  responsibility,  the  second  the  nature  of  insanity,  the  third 
the  nature  and  ends  of  punishment. 

The  practical  difficulties  connected  with  the  solution  of 
the  problem  are  many  and  great.  These  difficulties  consist 
in  the  variableness  and  indeterminateness  of  insanity,  which 
is  of  many  kinds  and  degrees ;  in  the  actual  fact  of  respon- 
sibility, considered  as  to  its  nature  and  degree,  in  the 
commission  of  crime  ;  and  how  far  punishment  should  have 
respect  to  the  intent  and  general  moral  competency  of  the 
criminal,  and  how  far  to  the  protection  of  society. 

Hence  the  question  of  responsibility  in  crime  and  of 
amenability  to  punishment  often  becomes,  in  actual  cases, 
very  complicated,  and  difficult  to  decide  with  justice  and 
truth.  How  far  criminals  as  a  class  show  some  morbid 
mental  condition  is  a  question  of  interest,  and  pertinent  to 
the  subject. 


462    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Carpenter's  Mental  Physiology,  Chap.  18. 
Chamb.  Encyc.,  new  ed.,  6.  158. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  13.  111-112. 

Hammond's  Insanity  and  its  Relation  to  Crime  (N.  Y.,  1873). 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  2.  1224. 

Maudsley:    i.    Responsibility    in    Mental    Disease    (Internat. 
Scient.  S.). 

2.  Body  and  Mind,  Pt.  i. 

3.  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  the  Mind,  Pt.  2. 
Ray's  Medical  Jurisprudence  of  Insanity,  5th  ed.  (Bost,  1871). 
Rush's  Diseases  of  the  Mind. 

Am.  Law  R.,  11.  51.  66 1  ;   15.  598,  717. 

Atlan.,  54.  308. 

Blackw.,  68.  545. 

Fraser,  27.  44. 

Independent,  1873,  May  8,  p.  592. 

Internat.  R.,  11.  440  (Hammond). 

Nation,  38.  114. 

New  Eng.,  14.  32;  35.  323. 

1 9th  Cent.,  18.  893. 

No.  Am.,  79.  327;  134.  i;  135.  422  (Hammond);   147.  626 

(Hammond). 
Overland,  N.  s.,  1.  166. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  440. 
Putnam,  12.  522-523. 

Sat.  R.,  61.  886.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  106.  249. 
Westm.,  39.  457  (Am.  ed.,  p.  243). 


DANCING  AND   CARD-PLAYING. 

269.   Are  such  popular  amusements  as  dancing  and  card- 
playing  harmful  in  their  influence  ? 

The  discussion  of  particular  amusements  involves  a  con- 
sideration of  amusement  in  general,  in  respect  to  its  utility 
and  end.  The  proper  function  of  amusement,  in  promoting 
the  refreshment  of  body  and  mind,  makes  it  a  necessary 
means  of  enjoyment  and  an  important  auxiliary  of  work. 
It  breaks  up  the  monotony  of  life,  enlivens  the  mind,  and 
promotes  cheer  and  exhilaration.  But,  like  all  good  things, 
it  is  liable  to  perversion,  which  makes  it  evil.  It  is  per- 


ETHICS.  463 

verted  whenever  it  is  in  any  way  turned  from  a  means  of 
good  into  a  means  of  evil.  Excess  is  a  perversion,  pro- 
ducing dissipation  and  exhaustion  instead  of  refreshment 
and  vigor. 

Let  such  considerations  as  these  be  applied  to  particu- 
lar amusements  like  dancing  and  card-playing.  It  is  not 
claimed  by  those  who  condemn  their  practice  that  they  are 
in  themselves  wrong  and  injurious.  It  is  their  perversion 
which  is  condemned. 

What,  then,  is  their  liability  to  perversion  ?  How  far  is 
their  general  practice  associated  with,  and  promotive  of, 
evil?  Is  the  tendency  of  dancing,  on  the  whole,  as  now 
generally  practised,  rather  to  evil  than  to  good  ?  How  far  is 
the  use  of  cards  in  gambling  an  objection  to  card-playing? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  782  (Cards,  Playing). 
Brand's  Beasts  of  Ephesus  (Chicago). 
Bushnell's  Sermons  on  Living  Subjects,  Ser.  19. 
Chapin's  Mor.  Aspects  of  City  Life  (N.  Y.,  1854),  Lect.  4. 
Dodworth's  Dancing  and  its  Relation  to  Education  and  Social 

Life. 

Eddy's  Young  Man's  Friend  (Lowell,  Mass.,  1850),  Lect.  5. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  5.  99  (Cards) ;    6.  798  (Dancing). 
Haydn's  Amusements  in  the  Light  of  Reason  and  Scripture, 

esp.  pp.  114-130. 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  1.  260. 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  p.  201  (Dancing). 
Locke's  Some  Thoughts  concerning  Education,  sec.  67,  196. 

Works  (Lond.,  1823),  9.  50,  190. 
Henry  G.  McArthur's  This  and  That  (Chicago,  1868),  Chap.  8, 

Dancing. 

Munger's  On  the  Threshold,  Chap.  8. 
Phelps's  My  Portfolio,  Chap.  8,  9. 
Sawyer's  Plea  for  Amusements  (N.  Y.,  1847). 
Wilkinson's  Dance  of  Mod.  Society.     Same,  Bapt.  Q.,  1.  465. 
Chr.  Exam.,  8.  201;   45.  157. 
Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  1.  185  ;    8.  32. 
Contemp.,  33.  511. 
Harper,  26.  163. 
Hours  at  Home,  4.  217;  7.  417. 
Lippinc.,  27.  330. 
Liv.  Age,  73.  55  (Hist,  of  Dancing) ;  84.  234 ;  83.  137. 


464     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Macmil.,  65.  54.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  171.  632.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

108.  117. 

New  Eng.,  9.  345  ;   26.  399. 
Penny  M.,  5.  I  ;   9.  113. 
Spirit  of  the  Pilg.,  3.  44,  601. 

THE   THEATRE. 

270.  Is  the  theatre,  in  its  character  and  influence,  as  shown 

in  the  past  and  the  present,  more  evil  than  good  ? 

271.  Can  the  theatre  be  reformed 'f 

272.  Should  Christians  never  attend  the  theatre  ? 

In  order  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  moral  influence 
of  the  theatre,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  its  true  char- 
acter and  relations.  Of  what  in  human  nature  is  it  the 
product,  on  what  is  it  founded,  to  what  does  it  appeal  ? 
Since  human  nature,  considered  hi  the  individual  and  in 
the  aggregate  of  individuals,  is  a  mixture  of  good  and  evil, 
whatever  proceeds  from  it  bears  the  same  mixed  character ; 
so  that  the  good  considered  as  a  whole  is  not  without  its 
evil,  and  the  evil  considered  as  a  whole  is  not  without  its 
good. 

The  function  of  the  theatre  is  the  public  exhibition  of- 
the  art  of  acting  in  its  relation  to  the  drama.  It  is  the 
miniature,  vivid  representation  or  imitation  of  life,  espe- 
cially as  it  is  exhibited  in  human  passion.  In  this  is  found 
both  its  power  and  its  danger.  For  its  appeal  is  directly 
and  chiefly  to  the  feelings,  which,  therefore,  it  may  unduly 
excite,  and  of  which  it  may  produce  a  morbid  development. 
In  this  respect  its  influence  is  like  that  of  the  drama  and 
of  fiction.  Indeed,  theatrical  acting  is  an  art  of  which 
dramatic  literature  may  be  considered  as  the  soul,  so  that 
between  these  two  there  is  a  vital  relation.  Hence  its  es- 
sential character  the  theatre  takes  from  the  drama. 

The  immediate  aim  of  the  theatre  is  not  moral,  but  to 
furnish  amusement  which  shall  attract ;  yet,  as  the  acting  is 
a  striking  representation  of  life,  it  will  inevitably  be  either 
morally  wholesome  or  pernicious. 


ETHICS.  465 

How  far,  then,  is  theatrical  acting  a  legitimate  outgrowth 
of  human  nature  ?  And  what  is  its  correspondence,  respect- . 
ively,  to  the  good  and  the  bad  in  human  nature  ?  What 
is  its  importance  as  an  art  for  the  representation  of  the 
drama  ?  What  is  the  place  in  society  of  the  ideal  theatre  ? 
How  far  has  the  ideal  been  realized  in  the  actual  theatre, 
and  how  far  may  it  be  ? 

The  defenders  of  the  theatre  dwell  on  its  ideal,  what 
it  may  and  should  be  to  make  it  unexceptionable,  and  no 
mean  power  for  good ;  while  those  who  attack  it  array 
against  it  facts  concerning  its  immoral  character  and  per- 
nicious influence  which  seem  completely  to  justify  their 
inveterate  hostility. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  140-147. 

Beecher's  Lect.  to  Young  Men,  Lect.  7. 

Brand's  Beasts  of  Ephesus  (Chicago). 

Buckley's  Christians  and  the  Theatre. 

Bushnell's  Sermons  on  Living  Subjects,  p.  383. 

Channing's  Works,  2.  332~334- 

Eddy's  Young  Man's  Friend  (Lowell,  Mass.,  1850),  pp.  107-111. 

Haydn's  Amusements  in  the  Light  of  Reason  and  Scripture, 

Chap.  8. 

Johnson's  Plain  Talks  about  the  Theatre. 
Kingsley's  Plays  and  Puritans.     Same,  No.  Brit.,  25.  I. 
Lecky's  England  in  the  i8th  Cent.,  1.  183-185. 
Leeds,  The  Theatre  (Philad.,  1884). 
Munger's  On  the  Threshold,  pp.  185-189. 
Talmage's  Sports  that  Kill. 

Van  Doran's  Mercantile  Morality  (N.Y.,  1852),  Chap.  12. 
Witherspoon's  Serious  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Effects  of 

the  Stage  (N.Y.,  1812). 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  1.  452~455>  465-469  (Moral  Influence 

of  the  Greek  acted  Drama). 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  12.  570-571- 
Chr.  Un.,  38.  222. 
Chr.  R.,  2.  393. 
No.  Am.,  136.  581-586. 
Spirit  of  the  Pilg.,  3.  597. 

30 


466      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

NEGATIVE. 

Brown's  Hist,  of  the  Am.  Stage. 

Charlotte  Cushman  :    her  Letters,  and  Memoirs  of  her  Life. 

Goethe:  i.  Wilhelm  Meister,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  16. 

2.  Conversations  with  Eckermann,  March  22,    1825. 
Same,  Blackie's  Wisdom  of  Goethe,  pp.  130-131. 
Hazlitt's  View  of  the  Eng.  Stage  (Lond.,  1818). 
Lewes 's  Actors  and  the  Art  of  Acting  (N.  Y.,  1878). 
Scott's  Essays  on  Chivalry,  Romance,  and  the  Drama  (Lond.). 

Same,  Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  8.  169. 
Schiller's  Essays,  ^Esthetical  and  Philosophical,  trans.  (Lond., 

1882),  p.  333. 

Atlan.,  5.  687  ;  47.  362 ;  53.  180-182. 
Blackw.,  7.  387. 

Chr.  Un.,  37.  4,  39,  387,  392~394,  486,  550 ;  38.  322-323  (1888). 
Contemp.,  60.  687. 
Eel.  M.,  105.  750  ;   106.  86. 
Nation,  2.  428  ;  37.  388. 
Critic,  6.  162  (An  Address  by  Henry  Irving). 
Nat.  Q.,  21.  68. 

iQth  Cent.,  1.  6n;  13.  217;  14.  441  ;  17.  154. 
No.  Am.,  136.  586,  591  ;  142.  491-492. 


RELIGION.  467 


XI.    RELIGION. 


ONE  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  human 
nature  is  the  religious  element.  This  is  strong 
and  abiding,  deep,  intense,  and  controlling.  It  is  not 
a  single  faculty,  but  pervades  and  gives  character  to 
the  whole  mind, — to  its  thinking,  feeling,  and  willing. 
If  in  some  it  consists  in  deep  and  intense  feeling,  in 
others  it  is  found  in  profound  and  lofty  thought,  and 
in  others  in  earnest  and  fruitful  action.  But  in  fact  it 
is  a  blending,  in  various  proportions,  of  all  these. 

Religion  is  not  merely  subjective ;  as  a  phenome- 
non of  the  human  mind,  its  nature  is  understood  by 
its  object.  Its  supreme  object  is  God.  Hence  it  is 
the  knowledge,  the  worship,  and  the  love  of  God, 
obedience  to  and  trust  in  Him.  Thus  in  its  object  is 
found  the  source  of  its  depth  and  comprehensiveness. 
For  God  is  the  all  in  all.  He  is  in  all  things  and  over 
all  things.  All  things  are  of  and  to  Him.  He  is  the 
ultimate,  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.  In  Him 
all  things  find  their  unity  and  reason. 

Religion  furnishes  the  profoundest  subjects  for 
thought.  Science  has  for  its  general  subject  nature; 
philosophy,  the  principles  or  reason  of  things;  re- 
ligion, man  in  his  relation  to  God.  These  all  overlap 
and  interpenetrate  one  another.  Hence  not  only  is 
there  a  philosophy  of  science,  but  a  philosophy  in 
science ;  so  that  in  its  speculative  aspect  it  tends  to 
become  itself  a  philosophy.  Scientific  and  religious 
truth  also  come  in  contact,  and  in  some  points  are 
at  variance.  Religious  thought  has  been  somewhat 
affected  by  the  scientific  method,  and  by  scientific 


468      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

thought;   yet  it  remains  distinct,  as  having  its  own 
higher  sphere. 

Between  religion  and  philosophy  there  is  a  closer 
alliance.  There  is  not  only  a  philosophy  of  religion, 
but  a  philosophy  in  religion ;  so  that  in  its  thought- 
form  it  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  philosophy. 
Theology,  considered  in  its  various  systems  and  in 
its  progressive  development,  may  be  called  a  religious 
philosophy. 

Philosophy  begins  with  the  human  mind  as  the 
subject  for  all  objects,  and  from  this  as  a  centre 
takes  in  the  whole  objective  universe.  Whatever  is 
compassed  by  human  thought  constitutes  the  prov- 
ince of  philosophy.  Science  and  religion  are,  in 
their  matter,  more  concrete  than  philosophy ;  hence, 
reduced  to  general  and  abstract  thought,  they  be- 
come philosophic. 

In  its  concrete  form,  religion  is  more  a  matter  of 
feeling,  consisting  in  faith,  hope,  love,  joy,  peace. 
Yet  these  are  neither  mere  feeling  nor  mere  knowl- 
edge; they  are  an  inward  experience,  comprising 
an  exalted  spiritual  feeling  and  a  conscious  inward 
knowledge.  Thus  the  true  knowledge  of  God  com- 
prises acquaintance,  fellowship,  and  union  with  Him, 
and  results  in  a  partaking  of  his  nature  with  its 
blessedness. 

From  this  it  will  be  plain  how  religion  raises  the 
soul  to  a  plane  higher  than  that  of  any  mere  human 
knowledge.  Religion  is  essentially  an  inward  life 
from  union  with  God.  Its  principal  general  charac- 
teristic is  righteousness.  In  this  is  seen  its  relation 
to  ethics,  but  it  is  higher  than  ethics.  Ethics  is  the 
philosophy  of  man  considered  as  moral ;  religion  is 
the  making  of  man  righteous  by  an  actual,  life-giving 
relation  to  the  personal  God.  Thus  religion  includes 
ethics,  as  the  greater  the  less. 


RELIGION.  469 

Religion  is  essentially  inward  or  spiritual,  while 
the  outward  is  its  body  or  form,  its  manifestation  or 
vehicle.  Hence,  to  make  it  consist  in  the  outward  is 
to  miss  its  reality.  Neither  is  it,  indeed,  the  mere 
inward,  which  is  mysticism ;  yet  its  soul,  its  life,  its 
power,  are  in  and  from  the  inward.  It  is  the  inward 
or  spiritual  which  gives  value  to  the  outward  or 
formal. 

The  distinctness  and  nature  of  science,  philosophy, 
and  religion,  respectively,  may  be  seen  in  the  differ- 
ence of  their  point  of  view.  Science  makes  nature 
its  basis,  as  understood  by  its  underlying  principles 
and  laws  ;  philosophy  makes  man  its  starting  point, 
and  undertakes  to  interpret  all  things  by  human  rea- 
son; while  religion  considers  God  as  the  all  in  all, 
and  man  as  His  creature  made  capable  of  knowing, 
loving,  and  becoming  like  Him. 

In  science  and  philosophy  God  appears  chiefly 
as  cause  or  power,  and  hence  as  abstract,  or  as  an 
object  of  mere  thought ;  while  by  religion  He  is 
made  known  as  a  person,  with  all  the  attributes  of 
personality,  —  will  or  power,  wisdom  or  reason,  love 
or  goodness,  justice  or  holiness.  Thus  by  religion 
God  becomes  an  object,  not  of  mere  thought,  but  of 
supreme  love  and  of  absolute  trust.  Hence  religion 
is  not  merely  human,  or  but  an  outgrowth  or  product 
of  human  nature  as  religious.  If  it  were  no  more 
than  this  it  would  be  but  subjective  in  its  origin, 
and  would  not  have  an  adequate  objective  validity. 
Hence  in  its  matter,  as  it  respects  the  knowledge  of 
God  and  all  that  is  implied  in  it  for  man,  it  is  a 
revelation  from  and  of  God. 


470    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


THE   PRIMITIVE   RELIGION. 

273.  Was  Monotheism  the  primitive  religion  ? 

274.  Was  Polytheism  the  primitive  religion  ? 

275.  Was  Fetichism  the  primitive  religion? 

These  are  really  questions  of  fact;  but  since  the  fact 
cannot  be  easily  and  certainly  determined,  help  is  sought 
from  theory,  by  which  facts  may  be  interpreted.  The 
natural  order  of  an  evolution  in  religious  ideas  would  seem 
to  be  from  the  lower  to  the  higher ;  so  that  if  monotheism 
be  considered  as  the  highest  form  of  belief  respecting  God,  it 
would  come  last.  This  theory  regards  religion,  in  its  origin 
and  nature,  chiefly  in  its  subjective  aspect.  It  is  a  theory 
of  the  origin  and  development  of  religious  belief  as  subjec- 
tive, with  but  a  secondary  or  incidental  regard  to  the  object 
which  excites  it,  or  to  its  objective  validity.  Fetichism,  or 
some  form  of  polytheism,  is  the  religion  of  the  savage,  who, 
in  the  theory  of  evolution,  is  regarded  as  the  type  of  the 
primitive  man. 

The  corruption  of  religion,  on  the  other  hand,  consists 
in  a  descent  from  the  higher  to  the  lower.  This  theory 
accounts  for  polytheism  and  fetichism  as  corruptions  of  a 
primitive  monotheism,  which,  it  is  thought,  may  have  had 
its  source  and  warrant  in  a  primitive  revelation.  The  as- 
sumed revelation  furnishes  to  the  subjective  belief  an  ob- 
jective validity.  There  is  an  actual  God  corresponding  to 
the  belief,  who,  by  the  revelation  of  Himself,  produces  and 
makes  valid  the  belief.  Monotheism  is  thus  made  a  truth 
having  objective  validity,  which  has  been  corrupted  by  hu- 
man degeneracy  into  various  forms  of  error.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  understood  that  the  assumption  of  a  revelation  is 
introduced  incidentally,  to  account  for  monotheism,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  already  established  as  a  fact  on 
other  grounds. 

The  fact  seems  to  be,  that  in  several  of  the  great  his- 
toric religions  early  traces  are  found  of  a  monotheistic  belief. 


RELIGION: 


While  this  may  not  be  in  all  cases  as  well  defined,  positive, 
and  exclusive  as  later  forms,  it  seems  nevertheless  to  have 
been  a  belief  in  the  one  only  supreme  God.  In  some 
cases,  it  must  be  allowed,  it  has  existed  in  connection  with 
a  subordinate  polytheism. 

Brace's  Unknown  God. 

Burgess's  Antiquity  and  Unity  of  the  Human  Race,  pp.  238-239. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans,  by  H.  Martineau,  V.  2,  Chap.  7-9. 

Encyc.  Brit,  23.  235-239. 

Gillett's  God  in  Human  Thought,  V.  i,  Chap.  I. 

Gladstone's  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age. 

Hume's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Religion,  sec.  1-3,  6, 7.  Philos.  Works,  V.  4. 

Joly's  Man  before  Metals,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  7. 

Keary's  Outlines  of  Primitive  Belief,  Chap,  i,  2. 

Kuenen's  National  and  Universal  Religions,  Note  7,  p.  317. 

Legge's  Religion  of  China  (N.  Y.),  pp.  6-n. 

Lubbock's   Origin  of  Civilization  and  Primitive  Condition  of 

Man,  Chap.  4-6. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.  of  Bib.,  Eccl.,  and  Theol.  Lit., 

6.  510. 

Mill's  Comte  (N.  Y.,  1875),  PP-  I9~3°- 
Moffatt's  Comparative  Hist,  of  Religions,  V.  i,  Chap.  5,  6,  12; 

V.  2,  pp.  305-307- 

Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  V.  i,  Chap.  10. 
Miiller:  i.  Chips  from  a  Ger.  Workshop,  V.  i,  Chap.  15. 

2.  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  Lect.  2,  6. 
Pressens^'s  Ancient  World  and  Christianity,  Chap.  i. 
Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap.  35. 
Rawlinson  :  i.  Religions  of  the  An.  World,  pp.  242-244. 

2.  Early  Prevalence  of  Monotheistic  Beliefs  (No.  II 

of  Present  Day  Tracts). 

Renouf's  Religion  of  An.  Egypt  (Hibbert  Lect,  1879),  Lect-  3 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2322. 
Tylor's  Primitive  Culture,  V.  i,  2,  Chap.  11-17. 
Brit.  Q.,  57.  342  (Am.  ed.,  p.  184).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  119.  259. 
Contemp.,  38.  614. 
N.  Princ.,  1.  346.     Same,  Brace's  Unknown  God,  Chap.  I. 


472      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

TRIBES   OF   ATHEISTS. 
276.    Are  there  tribes  of  Atheists  1 

This  is  clearly  a  question  of  fact.  But  that  there  may  be 
a  dispute  about  facts  is  seen  not  only  in  the  common  affairs 
of  every-day  life,  but  in  courts  of  justice.  The  principal 
point  to  be  settled  is,  What  are  the  facts  ?  that  is,  Are  the 
alleged  facts  authentic  ?  Is  it  really  true,  as  some  travellers 
have  asserted,  that  there  are  whole  tribes  destitute  of  any 
conception  of  a  Supreme  Being,  or  of  any  religion  ?  It  is 
evident  that  to  fix  the  nature  of  the  facts  is  to  settle  the 
question. 

By  atheism  is  to  be  understood,  not  the  denial,  but  an 
utter  want  of  any  conception  of  God.  The  conception  may 
be  vague,  or  even  false ;  but  it  must  be  such  a  conception 
of  a  superior  being  as  shall  excite  a  feeling  of  fear,  rev- 
erence, or  worship.  Lubbock,  especially,  gives  numerous 
facts  which  seem  to  prove  the  affirmative ;  while  Flint, 
with  others,  examines  them,  showing  them  to  be  untrust- 
worthy or  irrelevant. 

Blackie's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Atheism,  pp.  8-16. 

Flint's  Anti-Theistic  Theories  (Baird  Lect.  for  1877),  Lect.  7. 

Also  App.,  Notes  26-31. 
Fraser's  Blending  Lights,  pp.  180-183. 
Joly's  Man  before  Metals,  pp.  329-330. 
Lubbock:    I.    Prehistoric   Times   (N.  Y.),  pp.   531,  536,    541, 

574-581. 
2.    Origin  of  Civilization,  etc.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  121-125, 

158-162. 

Quatrefages,  Human  Species,  Chap.  35. 
Schmidt's  Doctrine  of  Descent  and  Darwinism  (N.  Y.),  pp.  300- 

302. 
Tylor's  Primitive  Culture,  V.  I,  Chap,  n,  pp.  417-424. 


RELIGION.  473 

BUDDHISM. 

277.  Has  Buddhism,  in  its  essential  principles  and  spirit, 

more  of  truth  and  good  than  of  error  and  evil? 

278.  Is  Buddhism  more  unlike  than  like  Christianity? 

Of  the  great  religions,  Buddhism,  considering  the  char- 
acter of  its  founder,  the  scope  and  significance  of  its  doc- 
trines, the  number  of  its  adherents,  and  its  profound  and 
far-reaching  influence,  is  one  of  the  most  important.  These 
considerations,  together  with  its  resemblance  in  some  im- 
portant respects  to  Christianity,  have  given  it,  even  to 
Christendom,  a  large  interest. 

It  is  not  a  mere  national  religion,  but  has  elements  of 
universality;  and  though  in  form  and  spirit  essentially 
Eastern,  it  has  points  of  interest  for  the  Western  mind. 
It  is  not  a  mere  natural  religion,  or  deification  of  the 
powers  of  nature ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is,  in  its  essential 
spirit,  ethical  and  practical. 

It  is  vitally  connected  with  the  life,  character,  and  teach- 
ings of  its  great  founder ;  hence  these  are  first  of  all  to  be 
considered.  In  its  development  as  a  system  it  will  be  found 
to  be  divided  into  primitive  and  later  Buddhism,  of  which 
the  first  is  the  more  pure.  This  fact  leads  to  the  inquiry 
whether  it  contains  in  itself  elements  of  life  which  make  it 
capable  of  self-renewal  and  of  self-perpetuation. 

In  its  origin,  it  was  a  reaction  from,  and  a  reform  of, 
Brahminism ;  hence  its  relation  to  this  must  be  considered. 
Its  standpoint  is  humanity ;  its  aim,  the  raising  of  humanity 
to  divinity.  Here  it  is  to  be  considered  whether,  as  some 
think,  it  is  really  atheistic ;  or  whether  it  can  be  regarded 
as  having  an  implied  recognition  of  the  Supreme  God. 
This  is  one  of  the  points  concerning  which  there  has  arisen, 
in  its  interpretation,  a  difference  of  opinion. 

Like  Christianity,  its  great  aim  is  human  redemption,  or 
the  deliverance  of  men  from  evil.  Its  method  of  accom- 
plishing this,  together  with  the  result,  may  be  compared 
with  that  of  Christianity. 


474      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

In  its  extreme  doctrine  concerning  evil  —  a  fundamental 
tenet  of  the  system  —  is  found  its  element  of  pessimism. 
Existence  is  declared  to  be  evil  in  itself;  hence  the  aim  of 
the  disciple  is  the  attainment  of  Nirvana.  Here  we  come 
upon  one  of  the  most  important  points  of  the  system,  con- 
cerning which  there  is  an  essential  difference  of  opinion. 
What  is  the  Nirvana  ?  Is  it,  as  might  seem  its  obvious 
import,  and  as  many  think,  a  deliverance  from  all  evil  by 
the  utter  extinction  of  existence  ?  Or  is  it  rather,  as  others 
think,  a  deliverance  from  all  evil  by  an  exaltation  above  the 
material  to  the  purely  spiritual,  in  which,  with  the  extinc- 
tion of  desire,  there  shall  be  perfect  and  eternal  rest  ?  It 
is  evident  that  the  estimate  of  the  system  must  be  affected 
in  an  important  degree  according  as  one  or  the  other  of 
these  views  is  taken.  Yet,  in  any  case,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  in  this  part  the  negative  is  predominant,  so  that  its 
influence  is  rather  depressing  than  inspiring. 

Considered  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  comprehensive,  but  incom- 
plete philosophy  of  life,  spiritual,  ethical,  and  practical,  with 
a  too  predominant  element  of  pessimism.  As  a  system  of 
religion,  its  most  radical  defects  are  found  in  its  want  of 
a  clear  doctrine  concerning  God  and  immortality.  When 
compared  with  Christianity,  other  doctrines,  such  as  that  of 
sin  and  of  redemption,  are  also  found  to  be  defective  and 
erroneous.  It  has  been  a  light,  but  not  without  darkness. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Religious  Knowledge,  p.  141. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  393. 

Arnold's  Light  of  Asia. 

Blackie's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Atheism,  Chap.  5. 

Beal's  Romantic  Hist,  of  Sakye  Buddha. 

Brace's  Unknown  God,  Chap.  14,  15. 

Bunsen's  God  in  Hist.,  V.  i,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  8. 

Clarke's  Ten  Great  Religions,  Chap.  4. 

Rhys  Davids  :    i.  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion  illustrated  by 

Buddhism  (Hibbert  Lect.  for  1881). 
2.  Buddhism  (Non-Chr.  Religious  Systems  S.). 
Dod's  Mohammed,  Buddha,  and  Christ  (Lond.,  1878). 
Du  Brose's  Dragon,  Image,  and  Demon,  Chap.  10-18. 
Eitel:  i.  Three  Lect.  on  Buddhism. 

2.  Handbook  for  the  Student  of  Chinese  Buddhism. 


RELIGION.  475 

The  Faiths  of  the  World  (St.  Giles  Lect.),  Lect.  2. 
Hardwick's  Christ  and  Other  Masters,  p.  153. 
Hardy:  I.  Eastern  Monachism. 

2.  Manual  of  Buddhism. 

3.  Legends  and  Theories  of  the  Buddhists. 
Kellogg,  The  Light  of  Asia  and  the  Light  of  the  World. 
Kuenen's  National  and  Universal  Religions  (Hibbert  Lect.  for 

1882),  Lect.  5. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  312. 
Lorimer's  Isms  Old  and  New,  Lect.  7. 
Maurice's  Religions  of  the  World,  4th  ed.,  Pt.  i,  Lect.  3;  Pt.  2, 

Lect.  3. 
Moffatt's  Comparative  Hist,  of  Religions,  V.  I,  Chap.  3,  sec.  4; 

V.  2,  Chap,  n,  sec.  2. 

Chas.  Morris's.  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  1.  313-321. 
Miiller:  I.  Chips  from  a  Ger.  Workshop,  V.  I,  Chap.  9-11. 

2.  Sci.  of  Religion,  with  Papers  on  Buddhism. 

3.  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  V.  10,  n. 
Oldenberg's  Buddha  •.    his  Life,  his  Doctrine,  his  Order,  trans. 

(Lond.,  1882). 
Pressense"'s  An.  World  and  Christianity,  trans.  (N.  Y.),  Bk.  3, 

Chap.  3. 
Williams's  Buddhism  in  its  Connection  with  Brahminism  and 

Hinduism,  and  in  its  Contrast  with  Christianity. 
Wordsworth,  The  One  Religion  (Bampton  Lect.,  1881).     See 

Index. 

And.  R.,  2.  255,  365  ;  6.  395  ;  12.  185. 
Atlan.,  23.  713;  26.  660;   37.  674. 
Bapt.  Q.,  6.  409. 
Bib.  Sac.,  39.  458. 
Chr.  Union,  40.  52  (July  II,  1889). 
Contemp.,  27.  417.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  129.  60. 
Contemp.,  29.  249;   57.  256. 
Ed.  R.,  115.  379  (Am.  ed.,  p.  193)- 
Fortn.,  32.  899.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  144.  208. 
Fortn.,  33.  80 1.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  146.  131. 
Independent,  1874,  Feb.  5,  P-  3?  Feb.  12,  p.  5-     1880,  Nov 

18,  p.  i.     1882,  Mar.  2,  p.  14;   Sept.  7,  p.  7- 
Meth.  Q.,  19.  586;  20.  68  ;  21.  219. 
Nation,  30.  352. 
Nat.  Q.,  31.  i. 

New  Eng.,  3.  182;  33.  268  ;  41.  614;  49-  24. 
I9th  Cent,  8.  971 ;  24.  119. 
No.  Am.,  86.  435  ;  136.  467  5  "0.  63,  221. 


476      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Presb.  R.,  4.  503. 

Quar.,  170.  318. 

Westm.,  66.  296  (Am.  ed.,  p.  162) ;  109.  328  (Am,  ed.,  p.  156). 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 

279.    Has  the  influence  of  Mohammedanism  been  more  evil 
than  good? 

Mohammedanism  is  probably  more  closely  and  entirely 
identified  with  Mohammed  than  any  other  great  religion 
with  its  founder.  He  was  not  only  its  prophet,  but  its 
creator.  In  body  and  spirit  it  proceeded  from  his  mind. 
This  is  not  to  say  that  in  all  respects  it  is  original;  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  much  indebted  to  both  Judaism  and 
Christianity.  Like  the  character  of  its  founder,  it  is  a 
mixture  of  good  and  bad.  In  history,  in  governments,  in 
national  and  individual  character,  and  in  civilization,  as 
well  as  in  religion,  it  has  been  a  mighty  power.  In  what 
respect  and  in  what  degree  has  its  influence  been  benefi- 
cent, and  in  what  maleficent? 

God,  in  His  unity  and  sovereignty,  is  the  heart  of  its 
creed  and  the  source  of  its  power ;  but  its  conception  of 
God  is  of  His  will  and  power,  without  love.  It  is  a  grand 
and  lofty  conception,  well  fitted  to  excite  in  fiery  natures  a 
deep  and  passionate  enthusiasm,  which  rose  to  fanaticism, 
and  made  its  armed  hosts  for  a  time  irresistible.  This  new 
power  in  human  hearts  raised  the  Arabs  from  idolatry  to 
monotheism ;  and  what  it  did  for  them  it  has  done,  espe- 
cially in  Africa,  for  other  idolatrous  tribes.  It  created  an 
empire,  gave  to  the  world  a  new  civilization,  and  con- 
tributed to  its  stores  of  learning.  It  is  a  great  proselyting 
power,  but  its  proselytes  have  been  made  more  by  force 
than  by  persuasion  and  enlightenment.  It  has  made  gov- 
ernments despotic,  and  their  rule  oppressive.  It  has  been 
a  power  hostile  to  Christianity;  nor  is  it  plain  how,  re- 
taining its  essential  features,  it  can  ever  become  its  ally. 

But  our  estimate  of  it  is  comparative.     If  we  judge  it 


RELIGION. 


477 


by  what  is  higher,  we  condemn  it ;  if  by  what  is  lower,  we 
commend  it.  There  is  certainly  much  in  it  to  condemn, 
and  doubtless  not  a  little  to  commend.  If  it  is  lower  than 
Christianity,  it  is  higher  than  heathenism.  Is  it  a  step  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher  ?  Or  is  it  a  step  which,  once  taken, 
arrests  farther  progress  ?  Is  it,  in  short,  rather  a  hindrance 
than  a  help  to  true  progress  ? 

The  subject  is  large,  and  possessed  of  an  interest  so  great 
as  well  to  repay  careful  study,  for  which  the  matter  is 
abundant  and  various. 

Andrews's   Institutes  of  Gen.  Hist,  Chap.  7,  sec.  i-io,  pp. 

217-234- 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11.  693,  696. 
Bush's  Life  of  Mohammed. 
Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  Lect.  2. 
Clarke's  Ten  Great  Religions,  V.  i,  Chap.  11. 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  244-258. 
Emmanuel  Deutsch,  Lit.  Remains  of  (N.  Y.,  1874),  p.  59.  Same, 

Quar.,  127.  293.     Same,  Smith's  Mohammed  and  Moham- 
medanism, App. 
Edwards's  Works,  7.  298-303. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  16.  545  ;  22.  659. 
The  Faiths  of  the  World  (St.  Giles  Lect.),  Lect.  1 1. 
Freeman:  I.  Hist,  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens. 

2.  The  Ottoman  Power  in  Europe,  Chap.  3. 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Chap.  50-52. 
Arthur  Gilman's  Story  of  the  Saracens  (Story  of  the  Nations  S.). 
Hamlin's  Among  the  Turks,  Chap.  22. 
Irving's  Mahomet  and  his  Successors. 
The  Koran.     Sale's  Trans.,  with  Prelim.  Discourse. 
Kuenen's  National  and  Universal  Religions  (Hibbert  Lect.  for 

1882),  Lect.  i. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist,  V.  2,  Lect  13. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  403,  411. 
Maurice's  Religions  of  the  World  (4th  ed.,  1861),  Pt.  i,  Lect.  i ; 

Pt.  2,  Lect.  i. 

Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  2,  Bk.  4,  Chap,  i,  2. 
Muir's  Life  of  Mahomet,  new  ed.,  abr.  from  the  ist  ed.  (Lond., 

1877),  esp.  pp.  534-536. 

Pascal's  Thoughts,  Wight's  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1864),  Chap.  20. 
The  Qu'ran.     Trans,  by  Palmer,  with  Introd.  (Sacred  Books 

of  the  East,  V.  6,  9). 


478      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Kenan's  Religious  Hist,  and  Criticism  (N.Y.,  1864),  p.  226. 

SchafFs  Church  Hist.,  V.  4,  Chap.  3. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1541. 

Seaman's  Progress  of  Nations,  V.  2,  Chap.  26. 

Select  London  Lectures,  ed.  by  D.  W.  Clark,  Lect.  I. 

R.  Bosworth  Smith's  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism  (N.  Y.). 

Stanley's  Hist,  of  the  Eastern  Church,  Lect.  8. 

Stilte's  Studies  in  Med.  Hist.,  Chap.  4. 

Stobart's  Islam  and  its  Founder  (Non-Chr.  Rel.  Systems  S.). 

Isaac  Taylor's  Fanaticism,  sec.  7. 

Trench's  Med.  Church  Hist,  Lect.  4. 

Wordsworth,  The  One  Religion  (Bampton  Lect,  1881),  pp.  244- 

259.     See  Index. 
And.  R.,  9.  80. 

Chr.  R.,  19.  543  ;    28.  161,  360. 
Contemp.,  50.  876.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  172.  58.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

108.  234. 

F.  W.  Bapt  Q.,  3.  i,  241. 
Meth.  R.,  49~z6  (1889). 
Nat  R.,  7.  137. 

No.  Am.,  146.  379  (Why  am  I  a  Moslem  ?). 
Unita.  R.,  32.  131. 


THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

280.   Has  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  been,  on  the  whole, 
a  blessing  to  the  world? 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  stands  for  age,  unity,  and 
comprehension.  It  wields  the  authority  and  power  of  a 
spiritual  despotism.  It  has  behind  it  a  long  history  of  good 
and  of  ill,  in  which  it  has  been  not  only  the  peer,  but  the 
master,  of  the  civil  power,  and  the  representative  of  Chris- 
tianity to  millions  of  souls.  It  has  had,  in  an  extreme  de- 
gree, the  spirit  of  the  world  and  the  spirit  of  Christ.  If 
some  of  its  leaders  have  exhibited  an  unholy  ambition  and 
lust  of  power,  many  of  its  adherents  have  shown  an  ardent 
piety  and  a  self-denying  love  for  men. 

In  form,  thought,  and  spirit  more  mediaeval  than  mod- 
ern, it  has  not  been  unaffected  by  the  modern  thought  and 


RELIGION.  479 

spirit.  It  has  itself  had  a  progress,  by  which  it  has  been 
modified,  but  not  revolutionized.  It  has  still  a  mission  of 
good  to  many  who  have  not  advanced  beyond  it.  Does  it 
hinder  progress?  Does  it  attempt  to  hold  its  subjects  in 
ignorance,  and  in  mental  and  moral  bondage  ? 

Its  assertion  of  authority  and  maintenance  of  unity  make 
it  naturally  inimical  to  entire  individual  liberty.  But  the 
restraint  which  it  seeks  to  impose  upon  the  individual  be- 
comes, in  the  prevalence  of  freedom,  more  difficult  to  en- 
force ;  hence  it  partakes  of  the  general  and  growing  spirit 
of  toleration. 

In  like  manner,  its  supremacy  over  the  civil  power  it  has 
lost  never  to  regain.  Its  influence,  indeed,  is  not  small,  and 
by  some  is  thought  to  be  threatening;  but  its  essential 
harmlessness  may  be  assumed  from  its  comparative  impo- 
tence. It  has,  with  other  bodies,  its  share  of  power  in  state 
and  society,  but  is  no  longer  sovereign. 

In  short,  it  is  a  powerful  Christian  body,  with  diverse 
human  elements,  conservative  and  aggressive,  somewhat  af- 
fected by,  but  not  fully  sharing,  the  spirit  of  the  times. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  trans.  (Gin.,  1874),  1-  358-461  ;  2.  i-u,  20- 

124,  153-174,  652-810,  1014-1067;  3.  339-441,  683-964. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  14.  392. 
Balines's    Protestantism   and    Catholicism   compared   in   their 

Effects  on  the  Civilization  of  Europe  (Bait.,  1851),  rev.  in 

Chr.  Exam.,  52.  165. 

Barnum's  Romanism  as  it  is  (Hartford,  Conn.,  1871). 
Comte's  Pos.  Philos..  trans.  (Lond.),  V.  2,  Chap.  9. 
D'Aubigne's  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  1-3. 
Dorner's  Hist,  of  Prot.  Theology,  trans.  (Edin.,  1871),!.  21-47. 
Draper's  Conflict  between  Science  and  Religion,  Chap.  10. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  20.  628. 
Evangelical    Alliance.     Proceedings,  Essays,  and   Addresses, 

1873,  Div.  5,  ist  sec.,  p.  427  et  seq. 
Froude's  Short  Studies,  3.  93. 
Gladstone's  Vatican  Decrees,  and  Schaff's  Hist,  of  the  Vatican 

Council  (N.Y.,  1875). 
Guizot's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  Lect.  5,  6. 
Hodge's  Essays  and  Reviews  (N.  Y.,  1879),  p.  221. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  646. 


480      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2.  282-284. 

Lea's  Studies  in  Church  Hist.,  pp.  177-233,  ^S^l,  392-459- 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  2.  135-142. 
Macaulay:  i.  Hist,  of  Eng.  (Harper's  ed.),  1.  17-19,36-38. 
2.  Essays,  4.  299  (Ranke's  Hist  of  the  Popes). 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  9.  71,  79. 
Manning's  Miscellanies  (N.  Y.,  1877),  p.  489. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  V.  8,  Bk.  14,  Chap.  I. 
Milner's   Rel.  Denominations  of  the   World  (Philad.,    1873), 

p.  527. 

The  Rel.  Denominations  in  the  U.  S.  (Philad.,  1859),  p.  130. 
Roussel's  Catholic  and  Prot.  Nations  compared,  trans.  (Bost., 

1855)  ;  rev.  in  Meth.  Q.,  15.  408. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2058,  2062. 
Strong's  Our  Country,  Chap.  5. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  1.  186-193. 
Cath.  World,  9.  52  (Comparative  Morality  of  Catholic  and  Prot. 

Countries);  21.  145  ;  22.  289,  577,  721  ;  23.  30  (Gladstone 

on  the  Rom.  Cath.  Ch.). 
Dub.  R.,  24.  31  ;  26.  214  (The  Rom.  Cath.  Ch.  and  European 

Civilization). 
Nation,  5.  229. 

New  Eng.,  28.  561  ;  29.  101. 
No.  Am.,  76.  148-166. 
Our  Day,  5.  41,  369,  449. 


JESUITISM. 
281.   Has  Jesuitism  been  a  greater  evil  than  good? 

For  a  knowledge  of  Jesuitism  in  its  character  and  influ- 
ence it  must  be  studied  in  its  origin,  in  its  constitution  and 
discipline,  and  in  its  history. 

Though  one  of  the  most  important  and  influential  of  the 
orders  of  the  Catholic  Church,  it  is  essentially  different  from 
any  other.  So  distinct  is  it  in  itself  that,  though  a  part  of 
Catholicism,  it  seems  to  be  rather  a  powerful  ally.  No 
other  agency  in  modern  times  has  contributed  so  much  to 
the  support  and  strengthening  of  Catholicism.  It  is  a  great 
missionary  order,  whose  aim  is  the  conversion,  by  teaching 
and  preaching,  of  heathen  and  Protestants.  Hence  its 


RELIGION.  481 

chief  work  is  to  be  sought  in  its  missions  and  schools, 
which  are  numerous  and  wide-spread,  and  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  which  its  members  have  shown  an  ardent  zeal  and 
a  tireless  energy. 

Jesuitism  constitutes  the  most  effective  effort  of  what  may 
be  called  the  Counter- Reformation ;  by  which  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Protestant  Reformation  on  Catholicism  were 
successfully  resisted,  and  its  great  losses  were  retrieved  by 
large  gains  in  other  lands.  It  is  Loyola  against  Luther. 

Considered  in  its  organization  and  working,  the  order  of 
Jesuits  must  be  regarded  as  embodying,  in  an  extreme  form, 
the  Catholic  principle  of  absolutism.  If  the  Catholic  Church 
is  a  spiritual  despotism  in  principle,  this  order,  in  respect 
to  its  own  members,  is  a  spiritual  despotism  in  fact.  Its  re- 
quirement is  absolute  submission  and  obedience  to  su- 
periors. The  Reformation  proclaimed  for  every  individual 
liberty  of  reason  and  of  conscience  ;  Jesuitism  exacts  of  all 
who  voluntarily  assume  its  vows  a  submission  more  absolute 
than  had  ever  been  yielded  by  man  to  his  fellow,  the  submis- 
sion not  only  of  will,  but  even  of  feeling  and  of  thought. 
Hence  of  the  perfection  of  organization  and  of  the  strict- 
ness and  thoroughness  of  discipline,  with  such  efficiency  as 
these  give,  Jesuitism  presents  an  instructive  study.  The 
end  effected  by  such  an  organization,  even  if  it  be  on  the 
whole  good,  cannot  compensate  for  the  loss  of  individuality. 

The  charges  brought  against  the  ethical  principles  and 
practice  of  the  Jesuits,  so  far  as  sustained  by  evidence, 
should  be  given  due  weight;  yet  they  cannot  fairly  be 
considered  as  making  bad  their  whole  character  and  work. 
By  all  the  facts  concerning  them,  for  and  against,  let  them 
be  impartially  judged. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist,  3.  373,  562-572,  683-685. 
Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  623. 
Barnum's  Romanism  as  it  is,  Chap.  9. 
Bert's  Doctrines  of  the  Jesuits  (Bost). 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Events  and  Epochs  in  Rel.  Hist,  pp.  262-274. 
H.  J.  Coleridge's  Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  (Lond., 
1872). 

31 


482     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  323-324. 

Constitution  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  :  Original  Latin,  with  Eng. 

trans. ;   also,  the  Bull  of  Clement  XIV.  suppressing  the 

Jesuits,  trans.  (Lond.,  1838). 
Encyc.  Brit.,  13.  645  ;  also,  24.  716  (Xavier). 
Fischers  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  Descartes  and  his  School,  trans- 

(N.  Y.,  1887),  pp.  145-153. 
Fisher's  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.     See  Index. 
Griesinger,  The    Jesuits  (N.   Y.) ;    rev.    in   Lit.  W.   (Bost.), 

14.  89. 

Hausser's  Period  of  the  Reformation,  Chap.  20. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  32. 
Lawrence's  Historical  Studies,  p.  99.     Same,  Harper,  39.  697. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  4.  865. 
Nicolini's  Hist,  of  the  Jesuits. 
Parkman's  Jesuits  in  No.  America  ;  rev.  in  Atlan.,  20.  360 ;  Chr. 

Exam.,  84.  347  ;  Nation,  4.  450. 
Pascal's  Provincial  Letters  (N.  Y.,  1875). 
Penny  Cyc.  (Lond.,  1839),  13-  Iro- 
Ranke's  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  Bohn's  ed.  (Lond.,  1878),  Bk.  2, 

sec.  4,  7;  Bk.  5,  sec.  3  ;  Bk.  6,  sec.  9,  13 ;  Bk.  7,  Chap.  2, 

sec.  8;  Bk.  8,  sec.  u,  18. 

Rose's  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  and  the  Early  Jesuits  (N.  Y.,  1891). 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1166. 
Seymour's    Mornings  among  the   Jesuits  ;   rev.  in  Liv.   Age, 

23.  241. 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy:  The  Catholic  Reaction,  V.  I, 

Chap.  4. 

Isaac  Taylor's  Loyola  and  Jesuitism. 
A.  W.  Ward's  Counter-Reformation  (Ep.  of  Ch.  Hist.  S.).     See 

Index. 

Am.  J.  Educ.,  5.  213  ;  6.  615  ;  14.  455  ;  27.  165. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  6.  559. 
Bib.  Sac.,  26.  576. 
Brit.  Q.,  13.  497. 

Chr.  R.,  6.  165.     Same,  Liv.  A^e,  11.  276. 
Chr.  R.,  25.  632. 

Chr.  Union,  41.  45  (Jan.  9,  1890),  Mod.  Jesuitism. 
Independent,  1891,  Oct.  29,  p.  18. 
Internat.  R.,  9.  499;  14.  49. 
Liv.  Age,  145.  317. 
Nat.  Q.,  3.  31 ;  15.  346. 

No.  Am.,  59.  412.  Putnam,  8.  312. 

Quar.,  137.  283  ;  138.  57.        Retros.,  9.  39,  370. 


RELIGION.  483 

PROTESTANT  SECTS. 

282.  Has  the  division  of  Protestant  Christians  into  sects 

been,  on  the  whole,  injurious  to  the  interests  of  true 
religion  ? 

283.  Is  Christian  union  to  become  organized? 

In  the  discussion  of  this  subject  three  things  respecting 
the  Church  claim  particular  attention  :  unity,  diversity,  and 
liberty.  These  are  not  necessarily  contradictory,  but  may 
exist  in  harmony.  Unity  and  liberty  are  primary ;  diversity 
is  inevitable,  but  secondary  and  subordinate.  Liberty  is  the 
inalienable  right  of  the  individual ;  while  true  unity  is  the 
voluntary  agreement  of  many  individuals  for  the  good  of 
each  and  of  all.  Hence  liberty  is  first,  but  unity  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  its  maintenance.  Liberty  without  unity  is 
anarchy ;  while  unity  without  liberty  is  despotism. 

The  Catholic  Church,  by  its  despotic  rule,  has  aimed  to 
maintain  a  certain  external  unity  at  the  sacrifice  of  indi- 
vidual liberty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gaining  by  Protes- 
tantism of  individual  liberty  has  involved  a  loss  of  external 
unity.  It  has  unity  of  a  sort ;  yet  it  is  a  unity  not  general, 
but  subsisting  in  each  of  various  bodies,  and  is  therefore 
broken,  divided,  and  imperfect.  Yet  Protestantism  is,  not- 
withstanding, an  advance  on  Catholicism,  because  it  has  res- 
cued liberty,  with  which  it  is  on  the  way  to  a  true  unity. 

The  warring  of  the  sects  has  unquestionably  been  un- 
christian, unseemly,  and  a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  true 
religion ;  but  an  increase  of  love  has  resulted  not  only  in  a 
growing  toleration,  but  in  co-operation.  It  is  love  which 
must  make  a  spiritual  unity,  without  which  no  external  unity 
can  be  true.  Spiritual  unity  will  show  itself  in  some  external 
form  ;  yet  whether  a  general  organic  unity  is  either  practi- 
cable or  desirable  is  a  question. 

Church's  Religious  Dissensions,  their  Cause  and  Cure  (N.  Y., 

1838). 
Evangelical  Alliance,  Proceedings,  Essays,  and  Addresses,  1873, 

Div.  2. 


484     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Ewer's  Catholicity  in  its  Relation  to  Protestantism  and  Ro- 
manism. 

Hague's  Principles  of  Christian  Union  (Bost,  1841). 

Harris's  Union,  or  the  divided  Church  made  One. 

Lorimer's  Isms  Old  and  New  (Chicago,  1881),  p.  284. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  9.  500. 

Schmucker's  Appeal  to  the  Am.  Churches,  with  a  Plan  for 
Catholic  Union  (N.  Y.  and  And.,  1838).  Same,  Am.  Bib. 
Repos.,  11.  86,  363. 

Am.  Theo.  R ,  2.  312  (Denominationalism,  not  Sectarianism). 

And.  R.,  4.  68;  6.  i. 

Chr.  Exam.,  16.  21  ;  21.  291  ;  40.  56. 

Chr.  R.,  2.  195  ;  3.  109;  7.  342;  12.  155,  475. 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Sept.  18,  p.  370. 

Cong.  Q.,  5.  25,  161. 

Independent,  1879,  Jan.  23,  p.  3  ;  1880,  July  I,  p.  6;  1886, 
Aug.  5,  p.  3 ;  1887,  Aug.  18,  p.  2. 

Internal.  R.,  14.  227. 

Lit.  and  Theo.  R.,  2.  507;  3.  140,  311. 

New  Eng.,  4.  132,  532  ;  5.  78  ;  31.  745  ;  33.  337,  554. 

No.  Brit.,  1.  412  ;  2.  565. 

Presb.  Q.,  5.  654. 


AMERICAN    UNITARIANISM. 

284.   Has   the  influence  of  American    Unitarianism  been 
favorable  to  Christianity  ? 

American  Unitarianism  may  be  considered  theologically 
and  historically.  Considered  theologically,  the  inquiry  will 
be,  in  what  points  and  how  far  it  is  a  deviation  from  ortho- 
doxy or  Evangelical  Protestantism  ;  considered  historically, 
the  inquiry  will  concern  its  relative  influence  and  importance 
as  a  movement  of  religious  thought. 

By  orthodox  writers  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  radical  di- 
vergence from  the  Biblical  view,  not  only  in  respect  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  but 
of  human  depravity,  the  atonement  and  regeneration,  all 
of  which  are  held  as  essential  to  the  Christian  faith. 

It  is  easier  to  define  Unitarianism  on  its  negative  side,  or 
in  its  opposition  to  orthodoxy,  than  on  its  positive  side,  or 


RELIGION. 

what  it  really  is.  The  difficulty  of  thus  defining  it  positively 
is  increased  by  the  fact  that  it  comprises  all  shades  of  be- 
lief, from  a  close  approximation  to  orthodoxy  to  a  diver- 
gency from  it  so  wide  that  it  retains  but  faint  traces  of  the 
Christian  faith.  Thus  the  movement  has  developed  these 
two  opposite  tendencies,  the  one  toward,  the  other  away 
from,  the  orthodox  belief. 

In  its  spirit  and  method  Unitarianism  is  rational ;  hence 
it  is  a  part  of  the  general  movement  of  modern  thought  to- 
ward a  larger  or  more  liberal  view.  It  is,  then,  an  attempt 
to  liberalize  Christianity,  or  to  make  it  rational.  That  the 
result  is  really  more  rational  than  the  orthodox  view,  those 
who  hold  the  latter  do  not  allow. 

But  it  must  be  admitted  that  within  the  bounds  of  the 
orthodox  bodies  themselves  a  similar  movement  is  going  on. 
This  internal  movement  is,  indeed,  less  radical,  yet  it  leads 
surely  to  important  modifications  and  restatements  of  ortho- 
dox belief.  How  much  this  inward  movement  of  orthodox 
bodies  has  been  affected  by  outside  movements  like  Unita- 
rianism, it  may  be  difficult  to  determine ;  but  that  it  has 
been  thus  affected  in  no  small  degree  there  can  be  little 
doubt. 

The  force  of  Unitarianism  is  in  its  thought ;  and  the  value 
of  its  thought  must  be  tested  by  its  own  instrument,  the 
human  reason.  Moreover,  since  the  Bible  is  the  great  ori- 
ginal and  authoritative  source  whence  Christianity  is  drawn 
and  on  which  it  rests,  the  principles  of  Unitarianism  must 
be  estimated  by  their  conformity  to  a  rational  interpretation 
of  its  truths. 

GENERAL  WORKS. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  23.  726. 

Fisher's  Hist,  of -the  Chr.  Ch.,  pp.  615-616. 
Frothingham's  Boston  Unitarianism. 
Johnson's  Cyc.,  4.  1028. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  10.  644-646. 
Rel.  Denominations  in  the  U.  S.  (Philad.,  1859),  p.  579. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2419. 

Sprague's  Annals  of  the  Am.  Pulpit,  V.  8,  Historical  Introd. 
Rev.  in  Chr.  Exam.,  62.  no. 


486      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Allen's  Our  Liberal  Movement  in  Theology. 

Barrows's  Baptist  Meeting-House. 

Burnap's  Objections  to  Unitarian  Christianity  considered  and 
answered. 

Channing's  Works,  3.  59,  163  ;  5.  393. 

Clarke's  Common  Sense  in  Religion. 

Dewey's  Works,  3.  3-118  (The  Unita.  Belief). 

Ellis's  Half-century  of  the  Unita.  Controversy.  Same,  Chr. 
Exam.,  60.  64,  203,  355  ;  61.  18,  235,  412  ;  62.  321. 

Unitarianism  :  its  Origin  and  Hist.  A  Course  of  Sixteen  Lec- 
tures delivered  in  Channing  Hall,  Boston,  1888-89  (Bost., 
1890). 

Bib.  Sac.,  38.  25. 

Chr.  Exam.,  8.  133;  11.  178;  14.  84;  30.  134;  32.  156;  37. 
181  ;  43.  187;  45.  94;  47.  107  ;  60.  64;  65.  366  ;  80.  289. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost),  13.  326. 

Independent,  1874,  Dec.  17,  p.  I  ;  Dec.  24,  p.  4. 

No.  Am.,  142.  230. 

Unita.  R.,  1.  61,  364;  3.  506  ;  26.  193;  27.  216,  530;  28.  40. 

NEGATIVE. 

Baird's  Religion  in  the  U.  S.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  Bk.  7,  Chap.  3. 
Hurst's  Hist,  of  Rationalism,  Chap.  23,  24. 
Lang's  Religion  and  Education  in  America  (Lond.,  1840),  Chap.  8. 
Light  in  Darkness:  or  Christ  discovered  inihis  true  Character 

by  a  Unitarian  (Bost,  1864).  ^ 

Strong's  Systematic  Theology.     See  Index. 
Woods:  i.  Letters  to  Unitarians,  Let.  12. 

2.  Reply  to  Dr.  Ware's  Letters,  Chap.  n.    See  Works. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  19.  719  (Oct.,  1870). 
Am.  Theo.  R.,  2.  259. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  5.  64.  » 

Chr.  R.,  23.  123-126. 

Cong.  Q.,  5.  216.  * 

Independent,  1879,  May  8,  p.  14;  1880,  Sept.  !>3,  p.  4;  1883, 

Jan.  n,  p.  4- 

New  Eng.,  4.  494  ;  16.  511  ;  26.  191  ;  41.  176;  45.  408. 
Spirit  Pilg.,  2.  65,  121,  177,  289,  469;  3.  113,  393^503  ;  4.  61. 


RELIGION.  487 


FAITH,   KNOWLEDGE,  AND   REASON. 

285.  Does  faith  precede  and  give  rise  to  knowledge  1 

286.  Is  faith  founded  on  and  commensurate  with  reason  ? 

The  subject  of  these  questions  is  faith  in  its  relation  to 
knowledge  and  to  reason.  Faith,  knowledge,  and  reason, 
then,  are  the  terms  which  must  be  defined. 

Faith  is  a  term  of  large  import,  embracing,  according  to 
its  application,  various  meanings.  It  is  a  function  of  the 
whole  mind,  in  its  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing,  and  par- 
takes of  these  several  elements.  It  sees  and  seizes  the 
truth ;  it  is  essential  trust ;  it  is  the  great  motor  of  the 
soul,  prompting  it  to  large  and  fruitful  action. 

Its  relation  to  knowledge  and  the  reason,  it  is  evident, 
involves  only  its  intellectual  aspect.  As  intellectual,  it  may 
be  considered  as  a  recognition  and  acceptance  of  the  truth. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  a  mere  assumption  of  any  proposition 
as  truth.  And  the  acceptance  of  the  truth  on  authority, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  child,  is  but  provisional,  and  is  not 
proper  personal  faith.  Faith  is  properly  a  spiritual  intui- 
tion or  beholding;  hence  its  result  is  spiritual  knowledge, 
or  certainty. 

True  faith  is  rational,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  in  accordance 
with,  and  never  contrary  to,  reason.  It  may,  indeed,  be  the 
acceptance  of  truth  not  fully  comprehended ;  but  reason  is 
the  arbiter  of  all  truth,  and  nothing  contrary  to  it  can  stand. 
Yet  the  human  reason  is  inadequate,  in  its  imperfect  de- 
velopment, to  fathom  or  compass  all  the  truth  which  it  ac- 
cepts, knows,  and  appropriates.  But  human  faith  is  also  as 
imperfect  and  as  liable  to  mistake  as  human  reason,  since 
both  alike  are  functions  of  a  mind  imperfect. 

Blackie's  Lay  Sermons,  Serm.  3. 

Coleridge's  Complete  Works  (Shedd's  ed.),  5.  557. 

D'Aubignd's  Discourses  and  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1846),  Disc.    13, 

Faith  and  Knowledge. 
Ellis's    Half-century  of   the    Unitarian    Controversy,    p.    289. 

Same,  Chr.  Exam.,  61.  412- 


488      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  3.  532,  Belief. 

Evangelical  Alliance,  1873,  Proceedings,  Essays,  and  Addresses, 

p.  255. 

Fisher's  Faith  and  Rationalism,  pp.  13-45;  also  App.  No.  i. 
Hodge's  Syst.  Theol.,  V.  i,   pp.  352-354 J   also,  V.  3,  Pt.  3, 

Chap.  1 6. 

Hopkins's  Strength  and  Beauty,  Chap.  15. 
McClintock  and  Strong's   Cyc.,  1.   732,  Belief;    3.   451-452, 

Nat.  Faith  ;  3.  464,  Faith  and  Reason. 
Neander*s  Ch.  Hist,  4.  369-380,  427-440.     See  General  Index, 

Faith  and  Knowledge. 
Newman:  i.  Oxford  University  Sermons,  Serm.  4,  7,  10-14. 

2.  Grammar  of  Assent.     Rev.  in  No.  Am.,  111.  222. 
Rogers's  Reason  and  Faith,  and  Other  Miscellanies  (13ost.,  1853), 

p.  339.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  90.  293  (Am.  ed.,  p.  155).     Same, 

Liv.  Age,  24.  i.     Same,  Eel.  A!.,  19.  289. 
Shedd's  Hist,  of  Chr.  Doctrine,  V.  I,  Bk.  2,  Chap.  2. 
Smith's  Faith  and  Philos.,  Chap.  i. 

Wace's  Foundation  of  Faith  (Bampton  Lect,  1879),  Lect.  i. 
Welch's  Faith  and  Mod.  Thought,  Chap.  2.     Same,  Am.  Presb. 

R.  20.  509  (July,  1871). 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  3d  S.,  1.  391 ;  4.  315. 
Bapt.  Q.,  5.  42. 

Bib.  Sac.,  26.  268;  31.  74  ;  38.  303 ;  44.  335. 
Chr.  Exam.,  17.  i  ;  59.  157;  70.  204;  85.  61. 
Contemp.,  29.  289  (Clifford)  ;  30.  42  (Wace,  Ans.  to  Clifford). 
Forum,  2.  105,  583. 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  17.  45. 
Nation,  30.  430,  452. 
New  Eng.,  40.  432. 
I9th  Cent.,  3.  531. 
No.  Am.,  151.  469. 

O.  and  N.,  2.  547  ;  5.  394.         Oberlin  R.,  3.  135,  145. 
Presb.  Q.,  2.  458.  Princ.,  N.  s.,  2.  511  ;  7.  I. 

Princ.,  33.  421.  University  O.,  2.  34. 


SCEPTICISM    AND   PROGRESS. 

287.   Has  scepticism  aided  more  than  it  has  retarded  the 
progress  of  truth? 

Scepticism  may  be  considered  as  in  its  nature  provisional. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  but  the  necessary  transition  from  a 


RELIGION.  489 

dead  to  a  living  faith,  from  a  narrow  dogmatism  to  a  large 
faith.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  be  considered  in  itself  as  but 
the  negation  of  faith,  it  must  be  owned  that  it  appears  not 
only  as  barren  of  good,  but  as  productive  of  evil,  and  as  end- 
ing in  mental  chaos  and  night. 

But  it  may  be  opposed  to  perverted,  and  not  to  pure  truth. 
It  may  be  an  inevitable  reaction  from  truth  which  has  be- 
come fossilized.  If  it  prompt  to  inquiry,  the  inquiry  may 
result  in  the  discovery  of  new  truth.  If  it  provoke  to  dis- 
cussion, the  discussion  may  confirm  and  clarify  the  truth. 
If  contrasted  with  credulity,  as  its  -opposite  extreme,  it  may 
be  seen  to  be  the  necessary  antidote  for  superstition.  In 
itself  negative  and  destructive,  it  can  in  no  way  promote 
progress  save  by  preparing  the  way  for  the  positive. 

It  is,  then,  not  scepticism,  but  faith,  which  actually  pro- 
motes progress  hi  truth.  Must,  then,  truth  be  considered 
as  making  progress  in  spite  of  scepticism,  and  in  its  triumph 
over  its  opposition? 

Aristotle's  Metaphysics,  trans.  (Bohn's  ed.),  Bk.  2,  Chap,  I. 
Lyman  Beecher's  Lectures  on  Folit.  Atheism,  Lect.  2,  Works, 

V.  i. 

Buchanan's  Mod.  Atheism,  Chap.  8,  p.  347. 
Buckle's  Hist,  of  Civilization,  V.  i,  Chap.  7.    Ans.,  Chr.  Exam., 

71.  389-392- 

Cairnes's  Unbelief  in  the  i8th  Century. 
Christlieb's  Mod.  Doubt  and  Chr.  Belief,  Lect.  i. 
Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  1.  353-356- 
Draper:   i.  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chap.  19-26. 
2.  Hist,  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science. 
A.  S.  Farrar's  Hist,  of  Free  Thought  (Bampton  Lectures  for 

1872),  Lect.  8,  p.  348  et  seq. 
Fisher's  Supernatural  Origin  of  Christianity,  Ess.  i.     Same, 

New  Eng.,  23.  113. 

Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Metaphysics  (Bost.,  1859),  pp.  63-66. 
Hurst's  Hist,  of  Rationalism,  Introd.,  and  Chap.  25. 
Lecky's  Rationalism  in  Europe. 
Lorimer's  Isms,  Serm.  10,  p.  229. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  8.  919,  Rationalism. 
Mahan's  Sci.  of  Nat.  Theol.  (Bost.,  1867),  Chap.  6.. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  pp.  57~58- 


490      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Stephen's  Hist,  of  Eng.  Thought  in  the  iSth  Century,  2  vols. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  12.  131. 

Blackw.,  118.  113.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  85.  416. 

Chr.  Exam.,  25.  137. 


MYSTICISM. 

288.  Has  Mysticism  a  rightful  place  in  philosophic  and 

religious  thought? 

289.  Has  Christian  Mysticism   exerted,  on  the  whole,  a 

favorable  influence  in  the  promotion  of  true  piety  ? 

Mysticism  serves  to  express  a  certain  general  tendency  of 
the  human  mind,  which  gives  rise  to  a  variety  of  kindred 
beliefs.  It  is  found  in  philosophy,  but  especially  in  religion ; 
and  in  its  character  it  is  rather  religious  than  philosophical. 
To  scepticism  it  bears  a  relation  of  opposition,  to  pantheism 
of  approximation  ;  while  asceticism  is  one  of  its  logical  and 
practical  results. 

Tending  to  high  and  refined  speculation,  it  is  dominated 
by  an  end  which  gives  it  a  certain  practical  character.  This 
end  is  the  elevation  of  the  human  to  the  divine ;  the  seek- 
ing of  which  constitutes  the  absorbing  pursuit,  its  attainment 
the  grand  consummation,  or  realization,  of  the  life. 

Like  asceticism,  it  is  an  element  of  Christianity.  Asceti- 
cism, in  its  principle,  is  found  in  Christianity  in  its  vital  ele- 
ment of  self-denial ;  mysticism,  in  its  spirituality.  But  its 
spirituality  is  the  very  heart,  the  essence,  of  Christianity. 
This  is  supreme,  the  all  in  all,  to  which  the  outwaul  must 
be  kept  subsidiary.  But  when,  instead  of  this,  the  out- 
ward is  made  supreme  and  the  spiritual  secondary,  so  that 
Christianity  becomes  unchristian,  a  spiritual  reaction  be- 
comes inevitable,  in  which  is  found  more  or  less  of  mysti- 
cism. Thus,  in  its  history,  Christian  mysticism  is  the  heart 
of  spiritual  movements  which  have  restored  vital  piety 
to  the  Church. 

At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  owned  that  it  is  liable  to 
become  extreme,  one-sided,  and  narrow.  It  magnifies  the 


RELIGION.  491 

inward  or  subjective,  to  the  neglect  of  the  outward  or  ob- 
jective. The  rational  is  superseded  by  the  intuitive,  and 
reason,  as  the  arbiter  of  truth,  by  feeling.  In  short,  mys- 
ticism is  not  in  itself  complete,  but  needs  to  be  supple- 
mented by  the  outward  and  by  the  rational. 

Clarke's  Events  and  Epochs  in  Rel.  Hist.,  Chap.  9. 

Cousin's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  1.  356-360  ; 

2.  37-42,  69-72. 

Dorner's  Hist,  of  Prot.  Theol.,  trans.,  1.  51  ;  2.  177. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  17.  128. 
Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  trans.,  V.  I,  sec.  229-234,  pp.  547- 

594;  V.  2,  sec.  278,  pp.  99-103. 
Fischer's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.,  Descartes  and  his  School,  trans. 

(N.  Y.,  1887),  pp.  102-106. 
Fisher:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  pp.  277-278,  495~496,  649-651. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  pp.  65-67. 
Fleming's  Vocabulary  of  Philos.,  art.  Mysticism. 
Hagenbach  :  i.  Hist  of  Doctrines.     See  Index. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Church  in  the  i8th  and  191)1  Cen- 
turies.    See  Index. 

Herrick's  Some  Heretics  of  Yesterday,  Chap.  i. 
Hodge's  Syst.  Theol.,  V.  i,  Introd.,  Chap.  4. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  794. 
Maurice's  Mor.  and  Met.  Philos.,  2.  17-30. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Latin  Christianity,  8.  240-241,  395-408. 
Morell's  Hist,  of  Mod.  Philos.  (N.  Y.,  1856),  pp.  58-59;  Pt.  2, 

Chap.  7 ;   Pt.  3,  Chap.  9,  sec.  4. 
Neander's  Ch.  Hist.,  5.  380-412.     For  many  other  references, 

see  Gen.  Index,  in  separate  volume. 

SchafF s  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  V.  i,  Chap.  2,  sec.  28  (Ch.  Hist.,  V.  6). 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1602. 
Shedd's  Hist,  of  Chr.  Doctrine,  1.  75-81. 
Strong's  Syst.  Theol.,  p.  17. 
Theologia  Germanica,  trans.  (Andover,  1860). 
Trench's  Med.  Ch.  Hist,  Lect.  24. 
Tulloch's  Rational  Theology  in  Eng.  in  the  I7th  Cent.,  V.  2, 

Chap.  5. 

Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philos.     See  Index. 
Ullman's  Reformers  before  the  Ref.,  trans.,  V.  2,  Bk.  3. 
Vaughn's  Hours  with  the  Mystics,  3d  ed. 
Brit.  Q.,  32.  497.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  52,  57. 
Brit.  Q.,  60.  297  (Am.  ed.,p.  159).     Same,  Liv.  Age,123.  451. 


492      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Chr.  Exam.,  24.  262-265  ;  37.  308;  71.  199. 

Chr.  R.,  25.  557. 

Ed.  R.,  84.  195  (Am.  ed.,  p.  102). 

Liv.  Age,  51.  738  ;  96.  171 ;  97.  569. 

Meth.  Q.,  20.  78,  277;  38.  412. 

New  Eng.,  5.  348;  36.  613. 

Unita.  R.,  1.  5. 

Westm.,  60.  499  (Am.  ed.,  p.  261). 


IMMORTALITY. 

290.    Can  the  immortality  of  the  human  soul  be  established 
from  the  light  of  nature  ? 

The  universality  of  the  faith  in  immortality  seems  to  mark 
it  as  a  natural  instinct  of  the  human  soul.  It  may,  perhaps, 
be  regarded  as  a  consciousness  of  the  soul,  implied  in  the 
consciousness  of  its  spiritual  nature.  In  the  soul's  knowl- 
edge of  itself  as  spiritual  is  found  the  knowledge  of  itself 
as  immortal. 

This  consciousness  is  confirmed  by  a  consideration  of  the 
nature  of  the  human  spirit.  Man  as  a  spirit  is  rational. 
But  his  reason,  in  making  him  a  subject  for  all  objects, 
renders  him  capable  of  illimitable  knowledge,  which  re- 
quires for  its  acquisition  endless  time.  Reason,  then, 
considered  in  its  nature,  capacity,  and  range,  confers  on 
its  possessor  immortality. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  moral  nature  as  a  part  of  the  ra- 
tional nature.  The  moral  nature  endows  the  human  soul 
with  a  dignity,  elevation,  and  worth,  together  with  a  capa- 
bility of  ever  increasing  good  and  happiness,  which  require 
and  imply  its  immortality. 

It  is  on  this  natural  basis  of  the  spirituality  of  the  soul 
that  Christ's  doctrine  of  immortality  is  founded.  The 
kingdom  of  God  which  he  sets  up  in  human  hearts  is 
everlasting  because  it  is  spiritual;  and  because  as  spirit- 
ual it  is  everlasting,  it  is  adapted  to  the  human  spirit  as 
immortal. 


RELIGION.  493 

But  if  the  subject  be  considered  a  matter  of  logic,  the  ra- 
tional arguments  adduced  in  its  support  may  seem  to  make 
it  no  more  than  probable.  The  certainty  that  any  reasoned 
conclusion  on  this  subject  must  be  problematical,  will  be 
confirmed  when  we  consider  that  immortality  must  be  a  fact 
of  the  future.  But  how  can  reasoning  make  known  as  cer- 
tain a  future  fact  ?  Reasoning  of  itself  can,  at  the  best,  but 
make  it  probable.  Revelation  must  give  a  certain  knowl- 
edge of  it ;  of  which  rational  argument,  coinciding  with  it, 
may  be  confirmatory. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  455. 

Alger's  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  3. 

Balfour  and  Stewart's  Unseen  Universe  (N.  Y.,  1875). 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  Religion,  Chap.  7,  14. 

Brooke's  Christ  in  Mod.  Life,  Serm.  12-15. 

Butler's  Analogy,  Pt.  i,  Chap.  I. 

Chalmers's  Sermons  (N.  Y.,  1854),  V.  i,  Serm.  24. 

Channing's  Works,  4.  169. 

Drew's    Immateriality  and   Immortality  of  the   Human   Soul 

(Philad.,  1837). 
Emerson's   Letters   and   Social  Aims.      Last  Essay.     Prose 

Works  (Efcst,  1880),  3.  371. 
Fiske's  Destiny  of  Man,  Chap.  16. 

Gross's  Belief  in  Immortality  on  purely  logical  Principles. 
Hadley's  Essays  Philolog.  and  Crit.,  p.  373. 
The  Hereafter.    Twenty-three  Answers  by  Clergymen  in  Boston 

Herald. 

Knight's  Essays  in  Philos.  (Bost.,  1890),  p.  283. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  4.  517. 
MacQueary's  Evolution  and  Christianity,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  9. 
Martineau's  Study  of  Religion,  V.  2,  Bk.  4. 
Munger  :  i.  Freedom  of  Faith,  Serm.  9-11. 

2.  Appeal  to  Life,  p.  245. 
F.  W.  Newman,  The  Soul,  Chap.  6. 
Theo.  Parker's  Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Occasional  Sermons 

(Bost.,  1852),  Ser.  13. 

Plato's  Phaedo  :  Jowett's  trans,  of  Plato's  Dialogues,  1.  301. 
Row's  Future  Retribution,  Chap.  4. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1065. 

Storrs's  Constitution  of  the  Human  Soul.     Graham  Lectures 
.,  1857),  Lect.  6. 


494    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Tucker's  Light  of  Nature  pursued,  V.  i,  Theology,  Chap.  6. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  ist  S.,  10.  411  ;  2d  S.,  12.  294. 

And.  R.,  8.  263;  9.499;  14-  *• 

Bib.  Sac.,  33.  695 ;  41.  44- 

Brit.  Q.,  56.  338  (Am.  ed.,  p.  180).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  115.  515. 

Cent.,  8.  67. 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  8.  556 

Contemp.,  19.  461.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  78.  535.     Same,  Pop.  Sci. 

Mo.,  1.  26. 
Contemp.,  19.  673,  719;  20.  27,  371.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  114. 

67,  707. 
Forum,  8.  98. 
J.  Spec.  Philos.,  4.  97;  7.  (Jan.)  91-94,  (July),  p.  89;  9.  27  ;  11. 

65,  177,  372  5  17.  154,  246;  18.  21  ;  19.  113,  172,  189,  299; 

20.  88,  310. 
Meth.  Q.,  20.  5. 

New  Eng.,  14.  115  ;  36.  647  ;  40.  643 ;  53.  52. 
O.  and  N.,4.  313. 
Overland,  N.  s.,  7.  525. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  14.  187. 
Unita.  R.,  5.  605;  30.  513. 
Westm.,  120.  409  (Am.  ed.,  p.  194). 


PROBATION  AFTER   DEATH. 

291.  Is  the  hypothesis  of  a  probation  after  death  rational 

and  probable  ? 

292.  Does  human  probation  terminate  at  death  1 

To  relieve  some  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  doc- 
trine of  eternal  punishment  for  sins  committed  during  this 
life,  some  have  conceived  as  an  hypothesis  a  probation  after 
death.  This,  it  is  evident,  must  be  founded  on  the  implica- 
tion of  the  inadequacy,  for  certain  classes,  of  the  earthly  life 
as  a  probation.  Even  back  of  this  lies  the  implication  that 
not  only  a  probation,  but  an  adequate  probation,  is  a  ne- 
cessary condition  in  order  to  the  justification  of  eternal 
punishment. 

And  here  the  question  arises,  what  is  an  adequate  proba- 
tion, or  what  is  necessary  to  make  it  adequate^%\  proba- 


RELIGION.  495 

tion  for  sinners  is  obviously  an  opportunity  for  salvation^ 
But  this  includes  not  merely  delay  of  punishment,  or  time 
for  repentance,  but  motives  to  lead  to  it,  showing  the  na- 
ture and  end  of  sin  and  the  possibility  and  nature  of  salva- 
tion. Since  salvation  is  alone  by  faith  in  Christ,  it  would 
seem  to  follow  that,  in  order  to  obtain  it,  a  knowledge  of  him 
is  necessary.  Can  it,  then,  be  said  that  to  the  millions  of 
heathen  who  have  never  heard  of  Christ  this  life  is  an  ade- 
quate probation?  All  this  is  on  the  assumption,  not  that 
we  feel  obliged  to  find  some  possible  justification  for  God's 
not  saving  great  multitudes  of  men,  but  rather  on  the  as- 
sumption that  he  is  sincerely  and  earnestly  desirous  of 
saving  all. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  for  this  hypothesis  of  another 
probation  there  is  no  positive  evidence,  which  might  justify 
faith ;  at  the  best,  there  is  no  more  than  presumptive  evi- 
dence, on  which  some  might  venture  to  rest  the  shadow  of 
a  hope  for  others.  But  there  are  also  presumptions  against 
it,  which,  to  many  minds,  outweigh  those  that  are  for  it. 
The  teaching  of  the  Scripture  especially  is  decidedly  against 
it ;  only  a  few^>bscure  passages  can  be  found  which  seem 
to  afford  it  any  countenance.  The  data  are  too  few  and 
uncertain  to  justify  its  belief;  while  the  practical  argument 
seems,  on  the  whole,  to  favor  but  one  probation. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Alger's  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  i. 

Bascom's  Philos.  of  iSligion,  pp.  495-501. 

Briggs's  Whither,  pp.  195-200,  206-211,  217-221.     (Holds  that 

if  there  is  a  probation  here  —  which  he  does  not  admit  - 

it  should  be  extended  to  the  future  world.) 
Dorner's   System  of  Chr.  Doctrine,  trans.  (Edin.,  1882),  V.  4, 

sec.  124,  153,  pp.  127,  401.     Same,  Smyth's  Dorner  on  the 

Future  State,  pp.  91,  14?- 
Farrar's  Eternal  Hope,  p.  185. 
Lange's  Matthew,  trans,  by  Schaff,  pp.  228-229. 
Progressive  Orthodoxy,  Chap.  4.     Same,  And.  R.,  4.  143- 
Row's  Future  Retribution,  Chap.  13. 
Smyth's  Orthodoxy  of  To-day,  pp.  123-129,  179-1 87. 


496     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

n:  i.  Is  Eternal  Punishment  endless  ?  pp.  86-58. 
2.  The  Gospel  of  the  Resurrection,  pp.  75-77. 
And.  R.,  1.  316;  7.  405,  461 ;  8.  312  ;  9.  206  (Rev.  of  Morris) ; 

11.  286  (Rev.  of  Love). 
Chr.  Union,  1890,  Mar.  13,  p.  373. 
Univ.  Q.,  47.  35. 

NEGATIVE. 

Brand's  Sermons  from  a  College  Pulpit,  Serm.  5. 

BushnelTs  Sermons  on  Living  Subjects,  Serm.  1 1. 

Love's  Future  Probation  Examined. 

Morris's  Is  there  Salvation  after  Death  ? 

Phelps's  My  Portfolio,  pp.  62-65. 

Pond's  Probation  (1837),  Chap.  6-8. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  1931. 

Shedd's  Dogmatic  Theol,  2.  693-714. 

Wright's  Relation  of  Death  to  Probation. 

Am.  Theo.  R.,  3.  93. 

Bib.  Sac.,  39.  751  ;  4O.  694;  43.  33,  423. 

Chr.  R.,  16.  541. 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Mar.  13,  p.  374. 

Cong.  Q.,  15.  240-244. 

Independent,  1887,  Mar.  17,  pp.  14,  16. 

Meth.  R.,  49.  65  (Shedd).  ^ 

New  Eng.,  29.  400. 

Presb.  R.,  6.  226. 


REVIVALS  OF  RELIGION. 

293.  Are  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  Christian  Church 
best  promoted  by  revivals  jf  religion  ? 

Revivals  of  religion  may  be  considered  in  respect  to  their 
nature,  history,  and  results.  They  are  extraordinary  efforts 
to  produce  extraordinary  results ;  and  the  character  of  the 
revival  will  depend  on  whether  the  efforts  are  legitimate  and 
wholesome,  and  the  results  genuine  and  permanent. 

The  general  history  of  revivals  seems  to  show  that  they 
have  been  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  promotion  of 
Christianity.  But  since  a  revival  is  a  religious  excitement, 
there  is  danger  lest  its  subsidence  should  become  a  reac- 


RELIGION. 


497 


tion.  In  a  revival  the  tide  of  feeling  runs  high,  and  an 
ebb  is  inevitable. 

The  normal  state  of  the  Church  is,  indeed,  one  of  activ- 
ity; but  it  is  a  state  of  sustained  and  uniform,  and  not 
spasmodic  activity.  The  aim  of  every  church,  therefore, 
should  be  to  maintain,  in  the  use  of  the  ordinary  means  of 
grace,  a  continuous  spiritual  life  and  interest,  which  shall 
insure  a  steady  and  healthful  growth,  and  shall  supersede 
the  necessity  for  occasional  extraordinary  efforts.  If  the 
church  pursuing  such  a  course  shall  have  its  "seasons  of 
refreshing,"  they  will  be  little  likely  to  be  followed  by  a 
reaction. 

Where  the  state  of  religion  is  low,  a  revival  is  indeed  an 
obvious  and  urgent  necessity ;  but  it  is  plain  that  the  better 
way  is  to  use  means  to  keep  religion  always  in  its  paramount 
place  in  the  thought  and  life. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Beecher's  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching,  2d  S.,  Lect.  8-10. 
Dorchester's  Problem  of  Rel.  Progress,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  i. 
Edwards:  i.  Narrative  of  Surprising  Conversions. 

2.  Thoughts   on  the   Revival   of  Religion  in  New 

England,  1740. 

Both  in  Works,  4  vols.  (N.  Y.),  V.  3. 
Finney:   i.  Lectures  on  Revivals,  Lect.  i. 

2.  Autobiography. 

Gibson's  Year  of  Grace  (Edin.,  1860). 
Hist,  of  Revivals  of  Religion  in  the  British  Isles,  especially  in 

Scotland  (Edin.,  1836). 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  1.  156-160,  162. 
Kirk's  Lectures  on  Revivals  (Bost,  1875). 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  8.  1075. 
Porter's  Revivals  of  Religion  (N.  Y.  and  Cin.,  1877). 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2038. 
Sprague's  Lectures  on  Revivals  (N.  Y.,  1833). 
Tracy's  Great  Awakening. 
Tyler:  i.  New  England  Revivals  (Bost,  1846). 

2.  Memoir  of  A.  Nettleton. 
Watson's  Life  of  John  Wesley. 
Am.  Presb.  Q.,  7.  485. 
Bib.  Sac.,  16.  279. 

32 


498      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

*Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  2.  34;  5.  20;  1O.  387. 
Chr.  R.,  9.  372. 
Cong.  Q.,  11.  34- 
New  Eng.,  16.  646;  38.  34~43- 
No.  Brit.,  33.  486. 

Quar.,  107.  148  (Am.  ed.,  p.  79).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  64.  786. 
Spirit  Pilg.,  4.  467. 

NEGATIVE. 

Allen's  Jonathan  Edwards,  zd  Period,  Chap.  1-3. 
Bushnell:  I.  Chr.  Nurture. 

2.  Building  Eras  in  Religion,  Chap.  5.     Same,  Chr. 

Q.  Spec.,  10.  131. 
Chauncy's  Seasonable  Thoughts  on  the  State  of  Religion  in 

New  England. 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  1.  160-162. 
Bib.  Sac.,  34.  334. 

Chr.  Exam.,  4.  464,  13.  29;  43.  374. 
Forum,  3.  587. 
New.  Eng.,  38.  43-46,  800. 
Lit.  and  Theo.  R.,  2.  494. 


THE  SALVATION   ARMY. 

294.  Is  the  Salvation  Army  calculated,  by  its  organization 

and  methods,  to  promote  true  Christianity  among  the 
lower  classes  ? 

295.  Is  the  Salvation  Army  entitled  to  the  approval,  en- 

couragement, and  support  of  the  Christian  Church  ? 

The  Salvation  Army  is  to  be  considered  in  respect  to  its 
end,  its  organization,  its  methods,  and  the  results  it  has  ac- 
complished. Its  end  is  the  salvation  of  the  lowest  classes, 
which  the  Church  fails  to  reach.  Its  organization  is  military, 
with  the  discipline,  authority,  and  obedience  characteristic 
of  the  military  rule.  Its  methods  may  be  called  sensational, 
with  the  intent  of  attracting,  exciting  an  interest,  and  mak- 
ing an  impression.  Its  results  consist  in  the  accession  of 
large  numbers  to  the  army,  of  whom  many,  it  is  said,  are 
reformed  and  elevated. 


RELIGION. 


499 


Its  proposed  end  must  be  deemed  good ;  but  it  must  be 
considered  in  connection  with  the  results,  which  show  how 
far  it  is  really  attained.  What  is  the  actual  character  of  the 
results,  —  how  high,  how  genuine,  how  permanent?  The 
character  of  the  results  is  necessarily  much  affected  by  the 
means  or  methods  used  to  produce  them  j  so  that  whatever 
may  be  esteemed  objectionable  in  the  one  will  likewise  ap- 
pear as  objectionable  in  the  other.  Yet  it  must  not  be  over- 
looked that  the  clear  and  forcible  presentation  of  truth  is 
the  real  spiritual  power  which  produces  spiritual  results. 

The  organization  makes  it  a  despotism ;  and  while  it  gives 
it  all  the  efficiency,  it  makes  it  liable  also  to  all  the  objec- 
tions, of  such  a  system.  In  short,  it  is  a  popular  religious 
movement,  with  something  of  good  and  likewise  something 
of  evil. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1883,  p.  710. 

Booth's  In  Darkest  England. 

Huxley's  Social  Diseases  and  Worse  Remedies  (pam.). 

Loomis's  Mod.  Cities  and  their  Rel.  Problems,  pp.  159-161. 

And.  R.,  2.  193. 

Cath.  Presb.,  9.  81. 

Contemp.,  42.  175  (Booth);  42.  182,  189,  335;  49.  55. 

Harper,  82.  897  (Farrar). 

Independent,  1881,  Dec.  29,  p.  14.     1882,  July  13,  p.  16  ;  Aug. 

17,  p.  5  ;   Dec.  7,  p.  17-     1890,  Nov.  27,  p.  3. 
Luth.  Q.,  12.  548. 
Murray,  5.  289  (Booth). 
Nation,  35.  126,  258;    36.  77. 
New.  Eng.,  42.  421. 
No.  Am.,  151.  510. 
Presb.  R.,  7.  257. 
Sat.  R.,  67.  8 1  ;  68.  33,  60. 

PASTORAL  WORK  AND   PREACHING. 

296.    May  a  Christian  minister  do  as  much  good  in  pastoral 
work  as  by  preaching  ? 

If  preaching  be  considered  as  the  great  work  of  the 
Christian  minister,  pastoral  work  should  be  regarded  rather 


50O     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

as  co-ordinate  than  subordinate.  It  is  not  merely  supple- 
mentary to  preaching,  but  has  an  importance  of  its  own. 

Preaching  is  indeed,  in  a  sense,  personal ;  that  is,  in  the 
act  of  listening  each  auditor  understands  and  appropriates 
the  sermon  as  he  can  and  will.  Still,  on  the  preacher's 
part  it  must  be  more  or  less  general,  and  he  cannot  make 
it  personal  as  he  can  a  talk  with  a  single  individual. 

Moreover,  if  preaching  is  not  merely  in  word,  but  in 
power,  pastoral  work  is  power  not  only  in  word,  but  in 
act  and  in  life. 

In  his  sermons  the  minister  affects  the  conscience  and 
heart  as  well  as  the  intellect  of  his  hearers ;  while  in  the 
more  familiar  intercourse  of  his  pastoral  work  he  wins  and 
binds  their  affections.  If  as  a  preacher  he  seems  more  as 
the  minister,  distinct  from  and  above  his  people,  as  their 
pastor  he  is  more  a  fellow  man,  one  of  and  with  them.  In 
short,  the  two  functions  go  together,  and  neither  is  complete 
without  the  other. 

Bedell,  The  Pastor. 

Beecher's  Yale  Lect.  on  Preaching,  V.  i,  Lect.  r. 

Gladden's  Parish  Problems,  Chap.  5. 

Hoppin's  Office  and  Work  of  the  Chr.  Ministry. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  7.  752 ;  8.  482. 

The  Preacher  and  Pastor  (And.,  1845).     Introd.  Essay  by  Prof. 

Park  :  Dignity  and  Importance  of  the  Preacher's  Work. 
Plumer's  Hints  and  Helps  in  Pastoral  Theol.,  Chap.   17,  18, 

23-25. 

The  Pulpit  Cyc.  (N.  Y.,  1845),  PP-  5H,  589-611. 
Shedd's  Homiletics  and  Pastoral  Theol. 
Simpson's  Lect.  on  Preaching,  Lect.  i,  7,  8. 
Skinner's  Preaching  and  Hearing  (N.  Y.,  1839),  Chap.  3. 
Sprague's  Pastoral  Sketches. 
Spring's  Power  of  the  Pulpit. 

Taylor's  Ministry  of  the  Word,  Lect.  I,  4-6,  n,  12. 
Vinet's  Pastoral  Theol.,  Pt.  3. 
Chr.  Exam.,  45.  427. 
Chr.  R.,  3.  218;  4.  581. 
Cong.  Q.,  6   365  ;  8.  29  ;   11.  379. 
New.  Eng.,  12.  604;   24.  570. 


RELIGION.  501 

EXTEMPORE    PREACHING  AND    WRITTEN 
SERMONS. 

297.  Should  all  preaching  be  extempore? 

298.  Should  the  written  sermon  be  permitted  to  hold  the 

place  it  has  gained  in  general  preaching  ? 

Extempore  preaching  and  the  reading  of  written  sermons 
are  the  two  most  common  methods  of  preaching ;  of  which 
each  has  its  own  advantages  and  its  own  disadvantages. 
Preaching  is  properly  extempore  when,  though  the  subject 
be  well  studied  and  the  thought  thoroughly  elaborated,  the 
words  are  left  to  be  suggested  by  the  occasion. 

The  first  requisite  of  excellence  in  discourse  is  sound 
thought ;  and  this,  whatever  the  method  of  communicating 
it,  requires  for  its  acquisition  and  mastery  hard  and  faithful 
study.  The  second  requisite  is  clear  expression,  which  must 
be  gained  by  careful  practice.  Both  thought  and  expres- 
sion, it  should  be  said,  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual mind,  and  are  proportioned  to  its  capacity. 

Now  writing  is  an  important  means  of  study,  both  for  the 
development  of  thought  and  for  the  cultivation  of  style.  To 
the  one  it  serves  to  give  definiteness,  to  the  other  precision. 
Hence,  if  these  alone  were  considered,  of  a  written  and  an 
extempore  discourse  by  the  same  person  the  former  might 
be  the  better.  But  this  must  be  modified  by  another  con- 
sideration ;  for  there  is  the  born  writer,  who  writes  better 
than  he  can  speak,  and  the  born  speaker,  who  speaks  bet- 
ter than  he  can  write. 

But  the  end  sought  in  addressing  an  audience  is  an  imme- 
diate impression,  and  for  this  much  depends  on  the  deliv- 
ery. Some  of  the  chief  requisites  of  this  are  self-possession, 
readiness,  force,  and  power  over  an  audience.  While  the 
delivery  may  seem  more  outward  than  thought  and  expres- 
sion, it  is  really  as  much  of  the  mind,  and  varies  according 
to  natural  endowment.  Hence  it  has  its  place  in  all  public 
discourse,  but  is  more  prominent,  and  more  free  and  effective, 
in  extempore  address. 


5O2      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

In  general,  then,  the  best  thought  and  expression  we  may 
find  in  the  written  sermon,  but  the  most  effective  delivery  in 
the  extemporaneous  effort.  Yet  it  should  be  said  that  this 
general  rule  is  liable  to  exceptions,  and  it  is  subject  to  modi- 
fication by  other  considerations  which  we  cannot  here  give. 

J.  W.  Alexander's  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  pp.  140-168. 

Bedell,  The  Pastor,  pp.  300-3  [5. 

Beecher's  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching,  1.  211-218. 

Broadus's  Preparation  and  Delivery  of  Sermons,  Pt  4,  Chap.  I. 

Fisk's  Manual  of  Preaching,  pp.  325-329. 

Hall's  God's  Word  through  Preaching,  pp.  122-158. 

Hervey's  Chr.  Rhetoric,  Bk.  4,  Chap.  4,  5. 

Hoppin's  Office  and  Work  of  the  Chr.  Ministry,  pp.  72-89. 

Humphrey's  Letters  to  a  Son  in  the  Ministry,  Let  14. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  4.  318. 

Plumer's  Hints  and  Helps  in  Pastoral  Theol.,  pp.  207-211. 

Simpson's  Lectures  on  Preaching,  Lect.  6. 

Storrs's  Preaching  without  Notes. 

Taylor's  Ministry  of  the  Word,  pp.  148-152. 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  16.  9  (Jan.,  1867). 

Am.  Q.  Reg.,  11.  285. 

Bib.  Sac.,  28.  566,  707;  29.  157,  339,  720. 

Chr.  Obs.,  3.  277,  343,  4<>7,  537,  54*,  608,  668,  735. 

Cong.  Q.,  12.  378;  14.383. 

New.  Eng.,  16.  28. 

No.  Am.,  19.  297. 


POLITICAL   PREACHING. 

299.  Should  political    subjects    be    introduced    into    the 

pulpit  ? 

300.  Should  clergymen  be  politicians  ? 

The  question  of  preaching  politics  involves  the  prior 
question  of  what,  in  general,  the  subject  of  preaching 
should  be.  If  it  be  answered,  the  Gospel,  or  Christ, 
then  it  may  be  inquired  how  much  this  implies.  How 
strict,  or  how  liberal,  shall  be  its  interpretation  ?  Does  the 
Gospel,  for  instance,  imply  human  freedom,  personal  and 
civil?  and  if  so,  does  this  then  come  in  the  preacher's 


RELIGION.  503 

province?  Or  are  all  such  subjects  to  be  considered  as 
merely  implied,  and  hence  not  to  be  directly  handled? 

The  Christian  minister  must,  indeed,  keep  strictly  and 
undeviatingly  to  his  own  proper  work,  whatever  that  may 
be.  Does  politics,  then,  ever  come  within  his  sphere? 
As  a  citizen  of  a  republic  he  may  certainly  have  somewhat 
to  do  with  politics.  This  is,  indeed,  his  duty  as  a  citizen. 
May  he  also,  in  any  case,  take  part  in  politics  as  a  minister? 
Can  this  ever  be  his  duty,  if  not  ordinarily,  at  least  in  some 
crisis  of  national  affairs  ?  Injustice  and  wickedness  may  be- 
come intrenched  in  government,  in  laws  and  their  admin- 
istration. In  such  a  case  is  it  not  the  duty  of  the  minister 
publicly  to  rebuke  the  iniquity  ? 

But  manifestly  he  is  not  to  be  a  partisan,  or  to  take  an 
active  part  in  ordinary  politics.  Such  a  course  would  be 
inconsistent  with  the  dignity  and  duties  of  his  higher 
calling. 

Strictly,  then,  politics  does  not  belong  to  the  province 
of  the  minister,  save  as  it  directly  involves  some  important 
moral  issue.  His  spiritual  instinct  and  good  sense  must 
keep  him  on  the  one  hand  from  rashness,  on  the  other 
from  timidity  and  timeserving. 

J.  W,  Alexander's  Thoughts  on  Preaching,  pp.  47,  264-271. 
Bedell;  The  Pastor,  Chap.  15,  pp.  252-260. 
Hoppin's  Office  and  Work  of  the  Chr.  Ministry  pp.  287-288     . 
Politics  and  the  Pulpit,  by  a  Minister  of  the  Presb.  Ch.  (Bost, 

1860). 

Taylor's  Ministry  of  the  Word,  pp.  295-299. 
Thornton's  Pulpit  of  the  Am.  Revolution  (Bost,  1876). 
Vmet's  Homiletics  (N.  Y.,  1878),  pp.  86-87. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  12.  122  (Jan.,  1863). 
F.  W.  Bapt  Q%  2.  310  (July,  1854). 
Chr.  R.,  22.  177-178. 
Fraser,  15.  423. 

Independent,  1880,  July  22,  p.  7  (Chr.  Politics:  Fjftrar). 
Liv.  Age,  160.  573  (Christianity  and 'Politics). 
New  Eng.,  12.  254;  15.  135  ;  25.  653. 
No.  Am.,  140.  183,  187. 
Oberlin  Evangelist,  18.  197  (Dec.  3,  1856). 
Princ.,  N.  S.,  9.  265  (Right  and  Wrong  in  Politics). 


504      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

THE   PULPIT   AND   THE    PRESS. 
30 1  „   Is  the  pulpit  more  influential  than  the  press  f 

The  press  in  this  question  should  be  restricted  to  the 
newspaper  press. 

The  influence,  respectively,  of  the  pulpit  and  of  the  press 
may  be  considered  as  extensive  and  intensive ;  the  former 
expressing  its  breadth,  the  latter  its  force. 

THE  PULPIT. 

The  pulpit  represents  and  enforces,  maintains  and 
spreads  Christianity.  Hence  its  worth  consists  in  its  high 
function  as  the  necessary  human  agency  in  upholding  and 
promoting  Christianity.  Its  message  is  the  Gospel,  and  the 
power  it  wields  is  the  power  of  the  Gospel.  The  subject  of 
its  preaching  is  the  Word  of  God,  which  it  opens  to  the 
understanding,  and  applies  to  the  conscience  and  the  heart 
It  is  God's  agency  for  the  conversion  to  righteousness  of  a 
world  lying  in  wickedness,  and  likewise  for  the  building  up 
of  the  jChurch,  which  is  the  salt  of  the  earth.  Hence  the 
power  of  the  pulpit  is  co-extensive  with  Christendom,  and 
is  fast  spreading  throughout  the  world ;  while  its  influence 
Is  as  profound  and  transforming  as  that  of  Christianity,  of 
which  it  is  the  medium,  and  that  not  only  on  individual,  but 
\>n  national  life  and  character. 

Am.  Almanac,  1889,  p.  273. 
Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S  ,  V.  I,  p.  727. 
Bayne's  Essays  in  Biog.  and  Criticism,  2.  322.     , 
Phillips  Brooks's  Lectures  on  Preaching. 
Bushnell's  Building  Eras  in  Religion,  Chap.  6,  7. 
Channing'f  Works,  3.  137,  257;  4.  265. 
Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life,  pp.  134-140. 
Evangelical  Alliance,   1873.      Proceedings,    Essays,   and   Ad- 
dresses, p.  392  (The  Mission  of^be  Pulpit:  H.  W.  Beecher). 
Farrar's  Social  and  Present  Day  Questions  (Bost),  Chap.  14. 
Holland's  Every- Day  Topics,  1.  113-119. 


RELIGION.  505 

Hoppin's  Office  and  Work  of  the  Chr.  Ministry  (N.  Y.,  1869), 

pp.  1-59. 

Phelps's  Theory  of  Preaching,  Lect.  i,  2,  40. 
Simpson's  Lectures  on  Preaching,  Lect.  i,  3,  7,  10,  esp.  pp. 

3I2-3U. 

Spring's  Power  of  the  Pulpit. 
Taylor's  Ministry  of  the  Word,  Lect.  I,  4-6,  12. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  13.  371  (1866). 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  3d  S.,  3.  721. 
Atlan.,  53.  170-176. 
Bib.  Sac.,  4.  96;   29.  698. 
Chr.  Exam.,  29.   19;    45.   427;    80.  208;   84.  40;    86.  245; 

87.  28. 

Chr.  R.,  60  348;  27.  118. 
Fraser,  30.  287. 
Nation,  4.  390. 

New  Eng  ,  6.  499 ;   14.  409  ;  17.  632. 
1 9th  Cent.,  1.  97.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  133.  334. 
No.  Brit.,  38.  423  (Am.  ed.'  p.  224). 

THE  PRESS. 

The  press  is  the  mirror  of  the  times.  It  gathers  up  re- 
ports of  men's  acts,  words,  and  thoughts,  and  oi  whatever 
is  occurring  of  good  and  evil,  and  sends  them  all  abroad  as 
news.  Thus  it  diffuses  intelligence  of  all  kinds,  and  brings 
the  ends  of  the  earth  together.  Moreover,  it  is  the  medium 
for  the  free  and  full  discussion  of  all  questions  pertaining  to 
hliman  welfare ;  so  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
agencies  for  the  formation  and  guidance  of  public  opinion. 

The  press,  then,  is  one  of  the  great  forces  of  modern 
civilization,  by  which  progress  is  promoted  in  the  elevation 
of  the  people. 

Am.  Almanac,  1889,  p.  42. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyco,  12.  334. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1886,  p.  6320 

Encyc.  Brit.,  17.  412. 

Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life,  pp.  122-127. 

Escott's  England  (N.  Y.,  1880),  pp.  574-577- 

Garfield's  Works,  2.  575. 

Hudson's  Journalism  in  the  U.  S. 

Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.  (N.  Y.),  3.  248-289. 


506      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Maurice's  Friendship  of  Books,  Lect.  4. 

Parton's  Famous  Americans,  p.  259.     Same,  No.  Am.,  102. 

373  (N.  Y.  Herald). 

Rep.  of  Com.  of  Education,  1871,  p.  553. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  7.  381. 
Atlan.,  2.  840  (Punch) ;  53.  176-180. 
Bib.  Sac.,  29.  401. 
Blackw.,  36,  373;   85.  96,  180. 
Brit.  Q.,  53.  i ;   55.  348  (Am.  ed.,  p.  185). 
Chr.  R.,  9.  7°- 
Contemp.,  49.  652. 
Cornh.,  27.  703;    28.  715;    29.   154,  535-     Same,   Liv.  Age, 

118.195;   119.387;   120.662;   121.579 
Ed.  R.,  38.  349;   57.  239  ;   102.  470  (Am.  ed.,  p.  241). 
Fortn.,  42.   17.     Same,  Liv.   Age,  162.  375.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

103.  366. 

Fortn.,  44.  149.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  166.  643. 
Fraser,  4.  127,  310.  » 

Nation,  6.  129;  9.  126;   25.  6;   28\  432;    31.  59,  74,  m>  N* 

198,  234,  250,  270,  303;    36.  119;    37.  444. 
igth  Cent.,  12.  347  ;   17.  43.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  164.  259. 
No.  Brit,  30.  367  (Am.  ed.,  p.  201)  ;   34.  184  (Am.  ed.,  p.  96). 
Quar.,  150.  498  (Am.  ed.,  p.  261).  • 
Westm.,  64.  492  (Am.  ed.,  p.  258);  74.  193  (Am.  ed.,  p.  103). 


CREEDS. 

302.   Are   Church   creeds   promotive   of  the    interests  ff 

Christianity  ? 
3^3.   Should  public  assent  to  a  creed  be  made  a  condition 

of  Church  membership  ? 

Creeds  are  authoritative  statements  of  belief,  which  serve 
to  define  truth  and  to  guard  from  error.  But  as  human,  it  is 
evident  that  they  can  be  neither  complete,  nor  final,  and  can 
have  no  absolute  authority  for  any  mind.  Neither  can  they 
produce  absolute  uniformity  of  belief.  The  various  creeds 
are  as  many  interpretations  of  the  Scriptures ;  but  there 
will  likewise  be  many  interpretations  of  each  creed.  Truth 
and  the  individual  mind  are  more  than  creeds,  and  will  not 
be  bound  by  them. 


RELIGION. 


507 


Yet  they  are  of  value  according  to  their  truth.  The  great 
historic  creeds  embody  the  important  results  of  long  discus- 
sions, and  define  doctrines  which  have  been  settled  as  fun- 
damental, respecting  which  there  is  a  general  consensus  of 
the  Church. 

A  creed  comprising  certain  points  of  belief  is  as  neces- 
sary to  a  church  as  a  constitution  to  a  government.  It  gives 
a  requisite  unity  and  coherence,  and  expresses  a  general, 
voluntary  agreement.  If  not  written,  it  is  implied.  Yet  the 
written  creed,  because  of  its  definiteness,  if  not  considered 
as  rigid,  but  as  flexible,  is  superior. 


1  am 


Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  233. 

Bushnell's  God  in  Christ  (N.  Y.,  1877),  pp.  79-84. 

Channing's  Works,  2.  289. 

Debate  between  Campbell  ^nd  Rice  (Lexington,  Ky.,  1844), 

p.  759  et  seq. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  6.  558. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  2.  466,  558. 
Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom,  V.  i,  Chap.  i. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  570. 
Winer's  Confessions  of  Christendom*  trans. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  3d  S.,  1.  577- 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  16.  605. 
And.  R.,  11.  63. 
Bib.  Sac.,  29.  538;   42.  121. 
Chr.  Exam.,  2.  364. 
Cong.  Q.,  4.  179;  5.  206;  8.  382;  11.  28;  19.  249,  261  (The 

last,  Creeds  and  Church  Membership). 
Contemp.,  20.  327  ;  21.  283,  372 ;  28.  836  (Schaff). 
Nation,  30.  413. 
New  Eng.,  4.  265  ;   32.  670  (Doctrinal   Creeds  as   Tests   of 

Church  Membership). 
No.  Am.,  136.  101. 
Westm.,  76.  207  (Am.  ed.,  p.  113). 

MOSES  AND  DAVID. 
304.    Was  Moses  greater  than  David? 

Moses   and    David   are   two   of  the   most   conspicuous 
characters  of  the  Old  Testament.      Both  are   associated 


508      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

with  Christ.     If  Christ  was  like  Moses  as  the  great  prophet, 
he  was  the  son  of  David. 

They  are  each  to  be  considered  in  their  individual  char- 
acter and  genius,  or  in  what  they  were  in  themselves ;  and 
likewise  in  their  public  or  official  character,  or  their  relation 
to  the  nation  and  their  importance  to  its  history.  These  two 
characters,  their  personal  and  official,  are  in  each  inseparably 
blended. 

MOSES. 

Moses  is  one  of  the  grandest  figures  of  history.  There  is 
about  him  a  majesty  which  excites  admiration  and  awe.  He 
is  great  hi  himself,  and  adds  greatness  to  his  position.  He 
is  even  greater  in  what  he  is  than  in  what  he  did.  He  was 
great  as  well  in  action  as  in  thought,  —  a  great  leader  and  a 
great  lawgiver.  He  was  wise  arm  good.  In  him  the  intel- 
lectual and  the  moral  were  unitel  in  just  proportion.  The 
Law,  his  lasting  monument,  scorns  embodied  in  himself. 
He  was  the  deliverer  and  lawgiver  of  his  people,  their  great- 
est prophet,  and  the  fmnder  Mi  their  future  gl^ry  as  a 
natitn. 

Bible :  The  Pentateuch. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  660. 

Bowen,  A  Layman's  Study  of  the  Eng.  Bible,  Chap.  6. 

Clarke's  Ten  Great  Religions  (Bost,  1871),  pp.  409-421. 

Cowles's  Pentateuch,  Chap.  12-21. 

Encyc.  Brit,  13.  396-400 ;   16.  860. 

Ewald's  Hist,  of  Israel,  trans.  (Lond.,  1871),  V.  2. 

Geikie's  Hours  with  the  Bible,  V.  2,  Chap.  4-12. 

Guthrie's  Studies  of  Character  from  the  O.  T.  (N.  Y.),  p.  107. 

Jas.  Hamilton's  Moses  the  Man  of  God  (Lond.,  1876). 

Ingraham's  Pillar  of  Fire. 

Josephus's  Works  :  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  Bk.  2-4. 

Kingsley's  Gospel  of  the  Pentateuch,  Serm.  9. 

Kitto's  Bible  Illustrations,  2oth  Week,  Tuesday. 

Lange's  Com.  on  Exodus,  Gen.  Intiod.,  sec.  9. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights   of  Hist.,   ist  S.,  Jewish   Heroes   and 

Prophets,  Chap.  3. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  677. 
Maurice's  Patriarchs  and  Lawgivers  of  the  O.  T.,  Serm.  8,  9. 


RELIGION. 


$09 


Milman's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  Bk.  2-4. 

Rawlinson's  Moses:  his  Life  and  Times  (Men  of  the  Bible  S.). 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1584. 

Smith:   i.  O.  T.  Hist,  Bk.  3. 

2.  Bible  Diet.,  Eng.  ed.  (Bost,  1863),  2.  425;  Am.ed., 

(Bost,  1883),  3.  2016. 

Stanley's  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Church,  Lect.  5-8. 
Taylor's  Moses  the  Lawgiver. 
Chr.  Exam.,  21.  i. 
Liv.  Age,  60.  59. 

DAVID. 

David's  greatness  was  also  in  himself.  Hence  it  was 
peculiar  to  himself,  different  from  that  of  Moses  or  of  any 
other  man.  He  was  fitted  for  his  time  and  his  position. 
He  was  the  great  king  of  Israel,  who  built  up  his  nation  and 
made  it  great. 

He  is  better  known  than  Moses ;  indeed,  few  historical 
characters  are  more  distinctly  portrayed.  This  portrayal  of 
his  character  in  its  lights  and  shades,  as  these  appear  in  the 
achievements  and  vicissitudes  of  his  eventful  career,  is  a  most 
interesting  study. 

His  character  must  be  studied,  not  only  in  the  history  of 
his  life,  but  also  in  his  writings ;  for  not  only  was  he  a  great 
warrior  and  administrator,  but  a  great  religious  poet.  In 
his  Psalms,  expressive  of  true  piety,  sincere  trust  in  God, 
deep  sorrow  for  sin,  and  a  real  love  of  righteousness,  he 
not  only  makes  himself  known  in  his  inmost  spiritual  life, 
but  has  perpetuated  his  influence  on  myriads  of  minds 
through  all  succeeding  ages. 

Bible:  ist  and  2d  Samuel,  and  Psalms. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  253. 

Clarke's  Ten  Great  Religions,  pp.  421-427. 

Cowles's  Hebrew  Hist,  Chap.  7,  8. 

Dean's  David :  his  Life  and  Times  (Men  of  the  Bible  S.). 

Encyc.  Brit,  6.  836;  13.  404-405. 

Ewald's  Hist,  of  Israel,  trans.  (Lond.,  1871),  V.  3. 

Geikie's  Hours  with  the  Bible  (N.  Y.),  V.  3,  Chap.  6-13. 

Guthrie's  Studies  of  Character  from  the  0.  T.  (N.  Y.),  p.  342. 

Ingraham's  Throne  of  David. 


510     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Josephus's  Works :  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  Bk.  6,  7. 

Kitto's  Bible  Illustrations,  $2d  Week,  Friday. 

Kingsley's  David  :  Five  Sermons. 

Lord's   Beacon   Lights  of   Hist.,  ist   S.,  Jewish   Heroes   and 

Prophets,  Chap.  6. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  2.  685. 
McLaren's  Life  of  David  as  reflected  in  the  Psalms. 
Maurice's  Prophets  and  Kings  of  the  O.  T.,  Serm.  3,  4. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  V.  I,  Bk.  7. 
Robinson's  From  Samuel  to  Solomon. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  611. 
Smith:  i.  O.  T.  Hist,  Chap.  20-21. 

2.  Bible  Diet.,  Eng.  ed.  (Bost,  1863),  1.  400 ;  Am.  ed. 

(Bost,  1883),!.  551. 

P.  Smith's  Hist,  of  the  World  (N.  Y.,  1865),  1.  170-171. 
Stanley's  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Ch.,  Lect.  22-25. 
Taylor's  David,  King  of  Israel. 


PAUL   AND   JOHN. 

305.  Has  Paul  been  more  influential,  by  his  labors  and 
writings,  in  the  development  and  promotion  of 
Christianity,  than  John  ? 

Paul  and  John  represent,  respectively,  two  distinct,  but 
related  and  harmonious  types  of  Christianity,  each  espe- 
cially suited  to  its  own  class  of  minds.  In  Christ  both  are 
found  united  in  harmonious  proportion,  of  which  the  larger 
measure  would  seem  to  be  that  of  John.  Both  may  be 
historically  traced  in  Christian  thought  and  experience. 
Protestant  Christianity  is  predominantly  Pauline;  yet  the 
Johannine  type,  of  which  the  central  and  inspiring  principle 
is  that  of  the  divine  love  as  the  light  and  the  life  of  men, 
seems  to  be  growing  on  the  world. 

PAUL. 

Paul  did  more  to  systematize,  organize,  plant,  and  spread 
Christianity  than  any  other  single  man.  This  was  his  mis- 
sion ;  for  which  he  was  fitted  by  native  ability,  and  by  an 
inward  spiritual  experience. 


RELIGION.  5 1 1 

Of  an  ardent  temperament,  his  remarkable  conversion 
transformed  him  from  a  persecuting  zealot  to  a  naming 
missionary.  Thenceforth  he  was  impelled  by  one  master 
passion,  the  Jove  of  Christ;  his  life  had  but  a  single  aim, 
to  live,  to  labor,  and  to  suffer  for  his  Divine  Redeemer. 

With  a  mind  at  once  logical  and  intuitive,  he  grasped 
Christianity  as  a  distinct  system  in  its  wide  scope  and  spir- 
itual significance,  and  in  its  relation  to  Judaism  and  to  the 
world ;  and  to  this  conception  he  gave,  in  thought  and 
word,  enduring  form,  which  should  make  his  name  forever 
intimately  associated  with  Christianity  in  respect  to  its  doc- 
trine, precept,  and  spiritual  power. 

With  thought  he  combined  a  boundless  activity,  which 
produced  everywhere  abundant  fruit.  First,  and  most  of 
all  others,  he  grasped  the  universal  nature  and  adaptation 
of  Christianity ;  and  this  grand  conception  made  him  the 
great  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

Thus  in  thought,  word,  life,  and  character  he  is  a  typical 
Christian  man,  exercising,  living  and  dead,  an  untold  influ- 
ence on  myriads  of  minds. 

Bible :  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  Paul's  Epistles. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  722. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  172. 

M.  Arnold's  St.  Paul  and  Protestantism.     Same,  Cornh.,  20. 

432,  598. 
J.   F.   Clarke's  Ideas  of  the  Apostle  Paul.     Rev.  in  Lit.  W. 

(Bost),  15.  162. 

Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
Encyc   Brit.,  18.  415. 
Farrar  :  i.  Life  and  Work  of  St.  Paul. 

2.  Message  of  the  Books,  Chap.  8-21. 
Fisher:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  pp.  21-30. 

2.  Beginnings  of  Christianity.     See  Index. 

3.  Discussions   in   Hist,   and   Theol.,  p.  487.     Same, 

Boston  Lectures,  1871  :    Christianity  and  Scep- 
ticism, Lect.  7. 
Godet:   i.  Com.  on  Romans.,  trans.,  Introd.,  Chap.  i. 

2.  Studies  on  the  N.  T.  (N.  Y.),  p.  246. 

Lord's   Beacon    Lights  of   Hist.,   ist   S.,  Jewish   Heroes   and 
Prophets,  Chap.  13. 


REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  7.  788. 

Macduff's  Footsteps  of  Paul  (N.  Y.,  1855). 

Macknight's  Apostolical  Epistles,  V.  i.    Prelim.  Essays,  Ess.  3. 

Maurice's  Eccl.  Hist.,  ist  and  2d  Centuries,  p.  100. 

Mozley's  Lectures,  and  other  Theol.  Papers,  Chap.  5. 

Neanders  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  Bk.  3. 

Jos.  Parker's  Apostolic  Life,  3  vols.  (N.  Y.,  1883). 

PressensS's  Early  Hist,  of  Christianity,  trans.     Apostolic  Era, 

Bk.  i,  2. 

Renan's  St.  Paul,  trans. 
SchafTs  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  new  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1882),  V.  i, 

Chap.  5,  12. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  1768. 
Smith:  i.  Bible  Diet.,  Eng.  ed.  (Bost,  1863),  2.  731  ;  Am.  ed. 

(Bost.,  1883),  3.  2362. 
2.  N.  T.  Hist. 

Swing's  Truths  for  To-day,  Serm.  12. 
Taylor's  Paul  the  Missionary. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  4.  138. 
And.  R.,  14.  13. 
Bib.  Sac.,  35.  425. 
Chr.  Exam.,  33.  70 ;   51.  89. 
Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  5.  453;  6.  449. 
Ed.  R.,  97.  87  (Am.  ed.,  p.  44). 
Nat.  R.,  1.  438. 
No.  Am.,  77.  173. 
Princ.,  N.  s.,  11.  158  (Schaff). 
Quar.,  156.  158  (Am.  ed.,  p.  89). 

JOHN. 

Of  all  the  disciples  John  came  nearest  to  the  Master's 
heart,  drank  deepest  of  His  spirit,  became  most  like  Him. 
What  is  this  but  saying  that  he  most  and  best  represents 
Christ ;  represents  Him  best  in  thought  and  word,  in  spirit, 
character,  and  life. 

What  of  Christ,  then,  is  it,  which  John  has,  most  of  all, 
seized  and  presented?  What  but  love,  Christ's  revelation 
of  the  heart  of  the  great  Father  of  all?  With  Paul,  too, 
love  was  an  absorbing  passion,  the  divine  grace  which 
made  him  what  he  was ;  but  its  effect  on  him  was  suited 
to  the  peculiar  nature  of  his  mind.  The  inward  flame 


RELIGION.  513 

was  manifested  in  an  earnest  outward  activity.  On  John's 
contemplative  mind,  on  the  contrary,  this  revelation  of 
love,  working  more  inwardly,  wrought  profound  and  lofty 
thought. 

Here,  then,  is  a  type  of  Christianity  dfferent  from  that  of 
Paul;  which,  if  less  extensive  in  its  influence,  is  deeper. 
Longer  in  maturing  in  the  mind  of  John,  it  reached  a  higher 
plane  of  excellence.  More  inward, -it  is  less  obvious ;  silent, 
it  works  the  more  profoundly. 

John's  influence  must,  therefore,  be  looked  for  rather  in 
thought  than  in  action.  Does  his  thought,  spoken  while 
alive  and  expressed  in  his  writings,  outweigh  Paul's  thought, 
together  with  the  fruitful  results  of  his  more  abundant 
labors  ? 

Bible  :  Gospel  and  Epistles  of  John,  and  The  Apocalypse. 

Abbott's  Diet,  of  Rel.  Knowledge,  p.  521. 

Boston  Lectures,  1872.     Christianity  and  Scepticism,  Lect.  6. 

Encyc.  Brit,  10.  830-841;  13.  706. 

Farrar:   i.  Early  Days  of  Christianity,  Bk.  5. 

2.  Message  of  the  Books,  Chap.  5,  27-30. 
Fisher's  Beginnings  of  Christianity,  Chap.  10. 
Godet :   i.  Com.  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  V.  i,  Bk.  1-3,  Introd. 

2.  Studies  on  the  N.  T.  (N.  Y.),  p.  277. 
Lange's  Com.  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  Introd. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  4.  942. 
MacDonald's  Life  and  Writings  of  St.  John. 
Maurice  :   I.  Gospel  of  John,  Disc.  i. 

2.  Eccl.  Hist,  ist  and  2d  Centuries,  Lect.  9,  10. 

3.  Patriarchs  and  Lawgivers  of  the  O.  T.,  Serm.  17 

(Joshua  and  John). 

Meyer's  Com.  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  V.  i,  Introd. 
Neander's  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  Bk.  5. 
Pressense^s  Early  Years  of  Christianity.     Apostolic  Era,  Bk.  3. 
SchafPs  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  V.  i,  Chap.  7. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1188. 
Sears's  Fourth  Gospel  the  Heart  of  Christ,  Pt  i,  4- 
Smith's  Bible  Diet,  Eng.  ed.  (Bost,  1863),  1.  1103,  mi ;  Am. 

ed.  (Bost,  1883),  2.  1420,  1427. 
Swing's  Truths  for  To-day,  Serm.  14. 
Stanley's  Sermons  and  Essays  on  the  Apostolic  Age,  3d  ed. 

(1874),  pp.  234-281. 

33 


5 14      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Tholuck's  Com.  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  Introd. 

Trench's  Life  and  Character  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (Lond., 

1854). 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  4.  299. 
And.  R.,  4.  163. 
Bapt.  Q.,  7.  310. 
Bib.  Sac.,  30.  i,  237  (Luthardt). 


THE  PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS  AND  THE  IMITATION 
OF  CHRIST. 

306.   Has  Bunyarfs  Pilgrim's  Progress  exerted  as  much 
influence  as  Kempis's  Imitation  of  Christ '? 

The  influence  of  each  of  these  celebrated  books  may  be 
considered  in  respect  both  to  its  extent  and  its  nature. 

As  to  the  extent,  it  may  not  be  easy  to  strike  an  exact 
balance  between  them.  Both  have  had  a  circulation  wide 
and  large ;  but  that  of  the  Imitation  has  existed  for  much 
the  longer  time,  so  that  it  would  seem  likely  that  it  has 
reached  more  minds. 

The  discussion  will  turn  chiefly  on  those  distinguishing 
characteristics  which  give  them  a  perpetual  charm.  The 
extent  of  their  influence  shows  a  characteristic  common  to 
both,  an  element  of  universality.  Both  are  religious,  and, 
moreover,  relate  to  religious  experience.  Yet  there  is  a 
difference.  The  type  of  experience  of  the  one  is  monastic 
and  mystical,  of  the  other  Evangelical  or  Calvinistic.  But 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  Imitation  is  mystical  in  any 
narrow  sense ;  on  the  contrary,  it  speaks  to  the  depths  of 
the  human  heart.  If  it  is  an  incomplete,  it  is  not  on  the 
whole  a  distorted  or  an  untrue  view  of  piety. 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress  owes  much  of  its  charm  to  its 
literary  or  artistic  form.  But  beneath  this  outward  form  is 
found,  as  its  animating  spirit,  a  striking  delineation  of  re- 
ligious experience,  in  which,  as  in  a  mirror,  are  reflected 
the  secret  workings  of  many  hearts. 


RELIGION.  515 

BUNYAN. 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  1.  282. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  440. 

Brown's  Bunyan  :  his  Life,  Times,  and  Work,  Chap,  n,  12. 

Cheever's  Lectures  on  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  (N.  Y.,  1844). 

Coleridge's  Works,  Shedd's  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1854),  5.  252. 

Encyc.  Brit. ,8th  ed.,  5.  767-768  (Macaulay).     Qth  ed.,  4.  529- 

530.     Same,  Harper,  14.   780-782.    Same,  Liv.  Age,  53. 

301-304. 

Froude's  Bunyan  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  S.),  Chap.  9. 
Green's  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  People  (Harper's  ed.),  3.  401-402. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  2.  250.     Same,  Ed.  R.,  54.  450. 
Macaulay's  Essays,  6.  132. 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  1.  919. 
Philip's  Life  and  Times  of  Bunyan,  Chap.  44,  47. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  338. 
Tuckerman's  Eng.  Prose  Fiction,  Chap.  4. 
Whittier's  Prose  Works,  Bost.,  1880, 1.  228;  Bost.,  1889,  2.31. 
Chr.  R.,  19.  243. 

Eel.  R.,  83.  129.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  33.  153. 
Macmil.,  30.  273.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  83.  322. 
Meth.  Q.,  9  466. 
No.  Am.,  36.  449. 
Quar.,  43.  469  (Sir  W.  Scott). 

KEMPIS. 

The  Imitation  of  Christ,  trans. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  9.  786. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  13.  61 ;    9th  ed.,  14.  33. 

Kettlewell's  Thomas  a  Kempis,  2  vols.    See  Index,  Imitatione 

Christi,  De. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  5.  33. 
Milman's  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity,  8.  297-301. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1237. 

Trench's  Lectures  on  Med.  Ch.  Hist.  (N.  Y.),  pp.  363-364. 
Ullman's  Reformers  before  the  Ref.,  trans.,  2.  114-162. 
Wheatley,  The  Story  of  the  "  Imitatio  Christi." 
Contemp.,  3.  72-73,  89-90. 
Meth.  Q.,  16.  642. 


516      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

LUTHER   AND   CALVIN. 

307.   Did  Luther  contribute  more  to  the  promotion  of  the 
Reformation  than  Calvin  ? 

The  Reformation  was  both  one  and  manifold.  It  was 
one  in  its  general  character  as  a  wide-spread  religious  move- 
ment, and  as  at  once  a  vigorous  protest  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  Catholicism,  and  an  earnest  striving  after  a  purer 
Christianity.  It  was  manifold  in  respect  to  the  countries 
where  it  prevailed,  the  leaders  who  gave  it  direction  and 
character,  and  the  successive  periods  of  its  development 
and  growth. 

It  received  its  first  impulse  and  had  its  principal  seat  in 
Germany,  where  Luther  was  its  leading  spirit.  Germany 
may  be  called  its  centre,  whence  it  radiated  to  other  coun- 
tries. But  the  memoir  of  Luther's  life  is  inseparably  inter- 
woven with  the  history  of  the  German  Reformation.  It 
was  he  who  began  and  carried  it  forward,  and  who  was  its 
animating  spirit.  Hence  all  histories  of  the  Reformation 
begin  with  him,  and  have  him  for  their  chief  subject.  En- 
dowed with  extraordinary  force  and  with  a  versatile  genius, 
bold  and  vigorous,  radical  yet  conservative,  a  ready  speaker 
and  a  prolific  writer,  he  was  well  fitted  to  be  the  great  leader 
in  the  most  important  movement  of  modern  times. 

Calvin's  part  in  the  Reformation  was  quite  different  from 
that  of  Luther.  When  he  enters  upon  the  stage,  the  scene 
changes  in  respect  both  to  place  and  time.  The  Reforma- 
tion has  already  become  an  established  fact.  It  has  fully 
vindicated  its  right  and  power  to  be ;  but  it  is  not  yet 
complete.  Calvin  now  stamps  upon  it  the  lasting  impress 
of  his  great  mind. 

A  clear  and  logical  thinker,  he  formulated  a  system  of 
theology  which,  profound  and  comprehensive,  has  won  nu- 
merous adherents  in  many  lands,  and  gained  an  influential 
place  in  religious  thought.  The  influence  of  Calvin  is, 
therefore,  to  be  sought  in  his  thought,  for  in  this  is  his 
great  power. 


RELIGION.  517 

LUTHER. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist,  V.  3,  sec.  I  (Adverse). 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  726. 

Bunsen's  Life  of  Luther.     Same,  Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  13.  722. 

Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,  Lect.  4. 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Events  and  Epochs  in  Rel.  Hist.,  Lect  8. 

D'Aubignd's  Hist  of  the  Ref. 

Dorner's  Hist,  of  Prot  Theol.     See  Index. 

Encyc.  Brit,  15.  71. 

Fisher's  Hist  of  the  Ref.     See  Index. 

Froude's  Short  Studies,  1.  37. 

Hallam's  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe.    See  Index. 

Hausser's  Period  of  the  Ref.,  Pt.  i. 

Hedge's  Hours  with  Germ.  Classics,  Chap.  6. 

Kostlin's  Life  of  Luther. 

Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  Our  Church  Universal,  2.  265. 

Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  30. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  5.  563. 

Martyn's  Life  and  Times  of  Luther. 

Mead's  Martin  Luther. 

Michelet's  Life  of  Luther. 

Milner's  Ch.  Hist,  Cent  16. 

Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist,  Bk.  4,  sec.  I. 

Mozley's  Essays,  1.  321  (Unfavorable). 

Ranke's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  Germany,  trans. 

Robertson's  Charles  V.     See  Index. 

Rogers's   Reason  and  Faith,  and  Other  Miscellanies  (Bost, 

1853),  p.   90.      Same,  Ed.   R.,  82.  93  (Am.  ed.,  p.  50). 

Same,  Eel.  M.,  6.  1.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  6.  325. 
Schaff's  Germ.  Ref.  (Ch.  Hist.,  V.  6).     See  esp.  sec.  124. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  2.  1363, 
Scherer's  Hist,  of  Germ.  Lit.,  1.  272. 
Sears's  Life  of  Luther. 

Seebohm's  Era  of  the  Prot  Ref.  (Ep.  of  Hist  S.).     See  Index. 
Treadwell's  Luther  and  his  Work. 

Waddington's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  (Lond.,  1841),  esp.  3.  353-363- 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  10.  293-297.      Ibid.,  2d  S.,  11.  241 ;  12.  I. 

Ibid.,  3d  S.,  2.  191. 
Atlan.,  52.  805. 
Chr.  Exam.,  43.  98  ;  73.  I. 

Contemp.,  44.  1,  183.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  158.  225,  579. 
Ed.  R.,  68.  273  (Am.  ed.,  p.  I45> 
Fortn.,  11.  72. 


5l8      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Nation,  7.  371 ;  37.  466. 

1 9th  Cent,  15.  652.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  451. 

No.  Am.,  111.  102. 

CALVIN. 

Alzog's  Ch.  Hist.,  3.  143-155  (Adverse). 

Ap.  Am  Cyc.,  3.  631. 

Baird's  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of  France.     See  Index. 

Bancroft's  Lit.  and  Hist.  Miscellanies,  p.  405. 

D'Aubign£'s  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  the  Time  of  Calvin,  8  vols. 

Dorner's  Hist,  of  Prot.  Theol.,  V.  I,  Bk.  I,  Div.  3,  sec.  2. 

Dyers  Life  of  Calvin. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  14.  714. 

Fisher's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.     See  Index. 

Saml.  W.  Fisher's  Sermons  and  Addresses,  pp.  273-376.    Same, 

Am.  Presb.  R.,  3.  391  ;  4.  104. 
Froude's  Short  Studies,  2.  9  (Calvinism). 
Hallam's  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of  Europe.     See  Index. 
Hardwicke's  Hist,  of  the  Church  during  the  Ref.     See  Index. 
Hausser's  Period  of  the  Ref.,  Pt.  4,  Chap.  18. 
Henry's  Life  and  Times  of  Calvin  (N.  Y.,  1851),  2  vols. 
Herrick's  Some  Heretics  of  Yesterday,  Chap.  9. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  V.  3,  Lect.  33. 
Mackenzie's  Life  and  Writings  of  Calvin  (Am.  ed.). 
Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.,  Bk.  4,  Cent.  16,  sec.  3,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  I. 
Renan's  Studies  of  Rel.  Hist,  and  Crit.  (N.  Y.,  1864),  p.  285. 
Schaflfs  Germ.  Ref.  (Ch.  Hist.,  V.  6).     See  Index. 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  1.  365. 
Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2.  541.    Ibid.,  3d  S.,  3.  583-584. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  20.  70. 

Bib.  Sac.,  2.  329,  489,  710  ;   14.  125  ;   30.  401. 
Chr.  Exam.,  43.  161;   69.  73. 
Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  10.  239. 
Chr.  Obs.,  2.  142,  279. 
Chr.  R.,  12.  326. 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Feb.  13,  p.  226.     1891,  Sept.  5,  p.  447. 
Ed.  R.,  131.  122  (Am.  ed.,  p.  64).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  104.  515. 
Meth.  Q.,  10.  571. 
New  Eng.,  3.  509;   39.  447. 

No.  Brit.,  13.  85  (Am.  ed.,  p.  46).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  25.  577. 
Presb.  Q.,  4.  254. 
Quar.,  88.  520  (Am.  ed.,  p.  277). 
Spirit  Pilg.,  3.  559,  615. 
Westm.,  70.  I      Same,  Liv.  Age,  59.  323. 


RELIGION. 


WESLEY  AND   CALVIN. 

308.  Has  the  influence  of  Wesley,  in  the  promotion  of  re- 
ligious thought  and  life,  been  greater  than  that  of 
Calvin  ? 

The  great  religious  awakening  in  England  under  the 
Wesleys  and  Whitefield  was  productive  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  far-reaching  results.  The  organization  and  per- 
petuation of  these  beneficent  results  is  due  to  John  Wesley, 
through  whose  genius  and  indefatigable  labors  Methodism 
became  a  great  spiritual  power. 

That  Methodism  has  a  mission  is  attested  by  its  success. 
This  mission  is  the  spread  of  Christianity  by  aggressive 
effort ;  for  which  it  is  admirably  fitted  by  its  organization 
and  spirit,  both  being  united  as  body  and  soul,  and  adapted 
for  work. 

Methodism  is  Wesley's  monument ;  it  is  essentially  what 
he  made  it.  Not  himself  a  profound  and  original  thinker, 
he  had  an  active  mind,  quick  to  seize  the  thoughts  of 
others  and  make  the  most  of  them.  But  in  all  things  he 
was  practical,  aiming  at  results ;  and  his  end  was  the 
highest,  the  salvation  of  men. 

Calvin  was  above  all  else  a  thinker ;  hence  his  influence 
is  that  of  high  religious  thought.  And  this  influence  of 
the  solitary  thinker  has  been  far-reaching  and  profound,  in 
accordance  with  the  spiritual  power  of  his  thought.  In 
Church  and  State,  and  in  society,  Calvinism  has  been  a 
great  power  for  the  promotion  of  godliness,  of  true  progress, 
and  of  civil  and  religious  liberty. 

WESLEY. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11  448;  16.  556. 

Bangs's  Hist,  of  the  M.  E.  Ch. 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Events  and  Epochs  in  Rel.  Hist,  Lect.  12. 

Dodd's  John  Wesley  :  a  Study. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  16.  185  (Methodism). 

Gome's  Episcopal  Methodism. 


520      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Herrick's  Some  Heretics  of  Yesterday,  Chap.  12. 

Holmes's  Wesley  Offering. 

Jackson's  Centenary  of  Wesleyan  Methodism. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  3.  444  -,  4.  1357. 

Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  i8th  Cent.,  V.  2,  Chap.  9. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  6.  151  ,  10.  912. 

Overton:   i.  John  Wesley  (Eng.  Rel.  Leaders  S.). 

2.  The  Evangelical  Revival  in  the  iSth  Cent.  (Ep. 
of  Ch.  Hist.  S.). 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.,  3.  2491  ;  also,  1.  145 ;  2.  1485-1494. 

Southey's  Life  of  Wesley,  and  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Meth- 
odism, Curry's  ed.  (N.  Y.,  1847). 

Stevens:   I.  Hist,  of  Methodism,  3  vols. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  M.  E.  Ch.,  4  vols. 

Taylor's  Wesley  and  Methodism. 

Tyerman's  Life  of  Wesley. 

Watson's  Life  of  Wesley. 

Whitehead's  Life  of  Wesley. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  2d  S.,  9.  388. 

Atlan.,  27.  321. 

Blackw.,  104.  428.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  99.  323. 

Brit.  Q.,  54.  417  (Am.  ed.,  p.  219). 

Chr.  Exam.,  43.  I ;  76.  157. 

Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  3.  471,  530. 

Contemp.,  27.  114,  171.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  128.  429,  451. 

Contemp.,  59.  343. 

Independent,  1891,  Mar.  5. 

Internat.  R.,  11.  320. 

Lond.  Q.,  1.  38.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  40.  339. 

Meth.  Q.,  8.  406,  455  i  10.  177;   15-  329;  18.  272;  19.  543  ; 
20.  260,  624,  31.  217,  384;  39.  5,  205. 

Nation,  15.  12. 

New  Eng.,  12.  82. 

I9th  Cent.,  29.  477. 

No.  Am.,  75.  226;  90.  181. 

No.  Brit.,  16.  506  (Am.  ed.,  p.  269);  32.  159  (Am.  ed.,  p.  86). 

Quar.,  24.  i. 

For  references  on  Calvin,  see  under  the  preceding  question, 
page  518. 


RELIGION. 


CALVIN  AND   SERVETUS. 


521 


309.   Is  Calvin's  part  in  procuring  the  condemnation  and 
death  of  Serve tus  deserving  of  censure  ? 

This  question  involves  the  general  subject  of  religious 
toleration,  especially  in  its  historical  aspect.  This  principle, 
so  consonant  with  the  Christian  spirit  and  now  so  generally 
prevalent,  was  in  the  time  of  Calvin  almost  unknown.  The 
general  abhorrence  of  radical  heresy,  and  the  corresponding 
conviction  that,  as  dangerous  to  society  and  even  to  gov- 
ernment, it  should  be  punished,  was  shared  by  Calvin,  and 
must  be  taken  into  the  account  in  any  just  estimate  of  his 
part  in  the  condemnation  of  Servetus. 

In  the  light  of  the  present,  he  cannot  indeed  be  justified, 
yet  he  should  be  treated  with  the  charity  which  is  required 
of  him.  He  was  by  no  means  solely  responsible  for  the 
death  of  Servetus;  he  even  protested  against  his  being 
burned.  Yet  the  cruel  act  met  then  with  general  approval, 
instead  of  censure. 

Servetus,  by  his  general  course  and  spirit,  and  by  expres- 
sions which  savored  of  blasphemy,  considering  the  general 
sentiment,  provoked  his  fate,  even  though  it  was  unde- 
served. The  facts,  then,  impartially  considered,  seem  to 
show  that  Servetus  was  deserving  of  reprobation,  but  not  of 
civil  punishment,  and  that  Calvin  is  deserving  of  censure, 
though  not  without  palliation. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  635  ;  14.  779. 

D'Aubigne's  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  the  Time  of  Calvin  (N.  Y.), 

1.6;  3.84-87,  197- 
Draper  :  I.  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  p.  492. 

2.  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Sci..  pp.  216,  363. 
Encyc.  Brit.,  8th  ed.,  6.  no;   20.  59.     9th  ed.,  4.  718-719  ; 

21.  684. 
Fisher:  i.  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  pp.  226-233. 

2.  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Ch.,  pp.  326-327. 
Henry's  Life  and  Times  of  Calvin  (N.  Y.,  1851),  V.  2,  Pt.  3, 

Chap.  4,  5- 


522     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY    WORKERS. 

Herrick's  Some  Heretics  of  Yesterday,  pp.  229-233. 

Lecky's  Rationalism  in  Europe  (N.  Y.),  2.  49,  52,  54,  56-57. 

Mackenzie's  Memoirs  of  Calvin,  Chap.  3. 

McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyc.,  2.  40  ;  9.  589. 

Mosheim's  Ch.  Hist.     See  Index. 

SchafFs  Germ.  Ref.  (Ch.  Hist,  V.  6),  pp.  62,  65-67. 

Schaff-Herzog  Cyc.,  1.  367-368  ;  3.  2162. 

Willis's  Servetus  and  Calvin  (Lond.). 

Bib.  Sac.,  3.  51. 

Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  3.  408. 

Independent,  1864,  May  5,  p.  2. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  12.  91. 


NEWMAN   AND   MAURICE. 

310.    Was  J.  H.  Newman  superior  in  ability,  character, 
and  influence  to  F.  D.  Maurice  1 

Newman  and  Maurice  represent  two  distinct  and  oppo- 
site movements  of  Christian  thought,  which  may  be  charac- 
terized as  conservative  and  liberal. 

As  individuals  both  had  certain  general  characteristics  in 
common.  Both  had  a  definite  and  positive  individuality, 
were  self-centred,  and  capable  of  thinking  for  themselves, 
and  so  for  others ;  both  were  men  of  learning,  of  wide  in- 
formation, and  of  comprehensive  thought ;  both  were  pos- 
sessed of  a  character  of  rare  sincerity,  purity,  and  elevation  ; 
both,  in  thought  and  feeling,  in  purpose  and  life,  were 
devoted  Christian  men,  and  exercised  an  eminently  Chris- 
tian influence.  Notwithstanding  this  they  pursued  paths 
which,  leading  in  the  same  general  direction,  were  widely 
divergent ;  but  the  divergence  was  rather  in  thought  than 
in  character  and  life.  Who  shall  say  that  each  was  not 
true  to  himself,  living  out  what  was  in  him,  and  fulfilling 
his  mission  ? 

Newman,  the  more  striking  figure  of  the  two,  notwith- 
standing his  change  of  religion,  commands  the  respect  and 
admiration  of  all  classes.  The  progress  of  his  thought  led 
him  to  take  the  Catholic  view  of  Christianity,  considered 


RELIGION.  523 

in  its  continuous  historic  development  and  comprehensive 
unity.  This  view  excludes  its  modern  phase,  begun  in  the 
Reformation. 

Maurice,  on  the  other  hand,  presents  in  his  writings 
modern  Christianity  in  its  broad  view.  Christ  as  the  mani- 
festation of  the  Father  is  the  sure  rock  on  which  he  builds ; 
hence  his  system  is  profoundly  Christian.  But  his  Christ 
is  for  the  world ;  hence  from  Him  as  the  centre  he  reaches 
out,  with  generous  warmth,  to  all  human  thought  and  life. 

Both  are  deeply  religious,  each  according  to  his  own 
thought.  The  types  are  various,  representing  different 
classes  of  minds. 

NEWMAN. 

Letters  and  Corresp.  during  his  Life  in  the  Eng.  Ch.,  ed.  by 
Anne  Mozley,  2  vols.  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sua. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1413. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12.  314. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1890,  p.  605. 

Farrar's  Social  and  Present  Day  Questions  (Bost.),  Chap.  21. 

Froude's  Short  Studies  (N.  Y.),  2.  86  ;  4.  151-235. 

Mutton's  John  Henry  Newman.      Rel.  Leaders  (Bost.). 

Jennings's  Cardinal  Newman:  the  Story  of  his  Life. 

Jos.  Jacobs's  Essays  and  Reviews. 

McCarthy's  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Times  (N.  Y.),  1.  I39-M6- 

Martineau's  Essays  (Bost.),  1.  34Q-     Same,  Nat.  R.,  3.  449. 

Mozley's  Reminiscences.     See  Table  of  Contents. 

Shairp's  Aspects  of  Poetry,  Chap.  15. 

Tulloch's  Rel.  Thought  in  Britain  during  the  igth  Cent.,  Lect.3. 

And.  R.,  4.  97  ;  12.  68 ;  14.  292. 

Blackw.,  108-285.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  107.  131. 

Chr.  Exam.,  79.  343- 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Aug.  21,  pp.  229,  231  ;  Oct.  30,  p.  562. 

Contemp.,  45.  642.  Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  579-  Same,  Eel.  M., 
103.  32. 

Contemp.,  49.  327.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  169.  95.     Same,  Eel.  M., 

106.  721. 

Contemp.,  58.  313. 
Ed.  R.,  132.  385  (Am.  ed.,  p.  195)- 
Fortn.,  32.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  142.  541. 
Fortn.,  54.  418.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  187.  3. 
Independent,  1890,  Aug.  21,  p.  10. 


524     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  22.  68. 

Liv.  Age,  102.  151. 

Nation,  51.  127. 

1 9th  Cent,  28.  563. 

No.  Brit.,  41.  85  (Am.  ed.,  p.  43). 

Presb.  R.,  4.  139. 

Quar.,  116.  528  (Am.  ed.,  p.  273). 

Univ.  Q.,  48.  81,  182. 

Westm.,  117.  427  (Am.  ed.,  p.  206). 

MAURICE. 

Allibone's  Diet,  of  Authors,  2.  1248. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  11.  289. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1872,  p.  505. 

Encyc.  Brit,  15.  638. 

Life  of,  ed.  by  his  Son,  2  vols. 

Life  of  Charles  Kingsley.     See  Index. 

Tulloch's  Rel.  Thought  in  Britain  during  the  i9th  Cent.,  Lect  7. 

And.  R.,  1.  612. 

Atlan.,  54.  274. 

Bib.  Sac.,  22.  642. 

Brit.  Q.,  79.  276.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  171. 

Chr.  Exam.,  56.  260. 

Contemp.,  45.  305.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  3. 

Dial  (Chicago),  5.  29. 

Ed.  R.,  160.  188. 

Fortn.,  21.  595. 

Fortn.,  41.  263  (Farrar).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  410.     Same, 

Eel.  M.,  102.  736. 
Lit.  W.  (Bost.),  15.  143. 

Macmil.,  26.  84  (Kingsley).     Same,  Eel.  M.,  79.  98. 
Meth.  Q.,  15.  26,  201  ;  46.  372. 
Nation,  39.  94,  113. 
New  Eng.,  44.  i. 

i9th  Cent.,  15.  849.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  161.  663. 
Scrib.  Mo.  4.  529. 
Spec.,  57.  341,380,  545. 
Unita.  R.,  35.  118. 


RELIGION.  525 

BEECHER   AND   SPURGEON. 
311.    Was  Beecher  a  greater  preacher  than  Spurgeon  ? 

Preaching,  it  is  evident,  varies  according  to  the  person- 
ality of  the  preacher.  It  varies  with  the  preacher's  concep- 
tion of  the  truth  and  his  manner  of  presenting  it.  Beecher 
and  Spurgeon  represent  two  distinct  types  of  preaching, 
which  may  be  called  the  Liberal  and  the  Evangelical. 

BEECHER. 

Beecher  absorbed  and  expressed  the  progressive  thought 
of  his  time.  As  a  thinker  he  can  be  considered  as  neither 
original  nor  exact,  yet  he  was  fertile  and  suggestive.  He 
had  great  facility  of  expression,  and  was  a  good  interpreter 
of  current  thought.  His  mind  was  largely  receptive,  and 
assimilated  and  gave  forth  with  equal  readiness.  His 
preaching  was  fresh  and  original,  in  the  sense  that  it  was 
the  vivid  expression  of  his  own  thought  and  feeling.  It 
always  bore  the  clear  stamp  of  his  own  individuality,  and 
received  its  character  from  a  heart  full  of  love  for  Christ 
and  for  his  fellow  men. 

The  Sermons  of  H.  W.  Beecher. 

Abbott's  Life  of  Beecher. 

Biog.  of,  by  Wm.  C.  Beecher  and  Rev.  Saml.  Scoville,  Chap.  29. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  2.  462. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1887,  p.  60. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.,  1.  219. 

Fish's  Pulpit  Eloquence  of  the  I9th  Cent.,  p.  847. 

Howard's  Henry  Ward  Beecher :  a  Study. 

Hugh  McCulloch's  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a  Century  (N.  Y., 

1889),  Chap.  13. 

Parton's  Famous  Americans,  p.  349.     Same,  Atlan.,  19.  38. 
Atlan.,  1.  862. 

Chr.  Union,  1887,  Mar.  10,  p.  3  ;  Mar.  31,  p.  8. 
Chr.  Union,  Beecher  Supplement,  1887,  Mar.  17. 
Contemp.,  19.  317,  477.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  113.  195,  278. 
Eel.  M.,  74.  755. 


526      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

Independent,  1887,  Mar.  10,  p.  16. 
Nation,  44.  225. 
New  Eng.,  29.  421. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  4.  751. 

SPURGEON. 

Spurgeon's  preaching,  while  not  less  effective,  was  of  a 
kind  quite  different  from  that  of  Beecher.  The  thought  is 
of  another  type,  suited  to  another  class  of  minds.  It  is 
less  broad,  more  strict,  more  theological.  It  is  definite, 
and  because  it  is  less  novel  is  more  apprehensible  by  the 
common  mind. 

Spurgeon  was  as  much  a  born  speaker  as  Beecher,  and 
his  speaking  was  as  much  the  expression  of  his  personality. 
In  his  own  province  he  was  as  fertile  in  thought,  and  he 
was  as  ready  in  speech.  With  strict  fidelity  he  kept  to  his 
work,  which  was  large  in  extent  and  influence,  and  fruitful 
in  results. 

The  Sermons  of  C.  H.  Spurgeon  (N.  Y.) 

Ellis's  Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon. 

Fish's  Pulpit  Eloquence  of  the  iQth  Cent,  p.  604. 

Cough's  Sunlight  and  Shadow,  Chap.  28. 

E.  Paxton  Hood's  Lamps,  Pitchers,  and  Trumpets,  2  vols.  in  I 

(N.  Y.,  1872),  2  185. 

Needham's  Life  and  Labors  of,  new  and  rev.  ed.  (Bost). 
Page's  C.  H.  Spurgeon  :  his  Life  and  Ministry  (N.  Y.,  1892). 
Shindler's  From  the  Usher's  Desk  to  the  Tabernacle  Pulpit 

(N.  Y.,  1892). 
Brit.  Q.,  26.  210.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  42.  224.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 

55.  619. 
Chr.  R.,  22.  296. 
Contemp.,  61.  305. 
Meth.  Q.,  18.  523. 
Nat.  R.,  4.  84. 
New  Eng.,  16.  28. 
No.  Am.,  86.  275. 
Rev.  of  Reviews,  5.  169. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


XII.    MISCELLANEOUS. 


REFORMER   AND   CONSERVATIVE. 

312.   Is  the  Reformer  of  greater  importance  to  society  than 
the  Conservative? 

The  aim  of  the  reformer  is  to  make  better;  hence  his 
work  is  negative,  or  destructive  of  evil,  and  positive,  or 
constructive  of  good.  The  aim  of  the  conservative,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  the  preservation  of  the  actual  as  good. 
Hence  there  arises  between  the  two  an  antagonism ;  for 
while  to  the  reformer  the  actual  is  not  good,  to  the  con- 
servative the  ideal  is  not  good. 

The  reformer  magnifies  the  evil  of  the  actual,  the  con- 
servative its  good ;  the  conservative  dreads  and  resists  the 
destruction  and  innovation  of  the  reformer,  while  the  re- 
former is  impatient  with  the  stolid  opposition  of  the  con- 
servative. The  reformer  is  aggressive,  with  his  face  to  the 
future ;  the  conservative  is  steadfast,  with  his  face  to  the 
past. 

The  conservative  is  the  guardian  and  guaranty  of  that  which 
exists ;  the  reformer  the  herald  of  progress.  In  their  growth 
to  maturity,  all  things  tend  to  conservatism.  In  church, 
state,  and  society  conservatism  is  the  ruling  force.  Nor  is 
this  an  evil,  but  a  natural  and  inevitable  law.  It  is  the 
power  of  all  that  is  for  self-maintenance.  But  in  order  to 
progress  there  must  be  reform,  which  is  the  elimination  of 
the  evil  and  the  useless,  and  the  perfecting  of  the  good. 
In  the  course  of  providence  these  two  elements  of  human 
nature  and  of  human  society,  often  but  not  always  in  con- 
flict, work  together  for  a  common  end,  the  conjunction  and 
harmony  of  the  actual  with  the  ideal. 


528      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

REFORMER. 

Chapin's  Philosophy  of  Reform. 

A.  J.  Davis's  Great  Harmonia  (Bost,  1852),  V.  2,  The  Teacher, 

P- 73- 
Emerson's  Prose  Works,  1.  125.  143,  549  (Man  the  Reformer; 

Lect.  on  the  Times ;  New  Eng.  Reformers). 
Greeley's  Recollections  of  a  Easy  Life,  p.  497. 
Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  2.  268. 
McCarthy's  Epoch  of  Reform  (Epochs  of  Hist.  S.> 
Blackw.,31.  i. 
Chr.  Exam.,  14.  273. 
Chr.  R.,  11.426;  15.  59. 
Dial  (Chicago),  5.  135. 
Eel.  R.,  113.  i.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  52.  337. 
Ed.  R.,  88.  360  (Am.  ed.,  p.  187). 
Fortn.,  17.  243. 
Fraser,  9.  314. 
Nation,  20.  74,  252. 
No.  Am.,  33.  154  ;  127.  237 


CONSERVATIVE. 

Emerson's  Prose  Works,  1.  161. 

Martensen's  Chr.  Ethics,  trans.,  sec.  146-147,  pp.  452-462  (Con- 
servatism and  Progress). 

Whipple's  Lit.  and  Life,  p.  322  (Stupid  Conservatism  and 
Malignant  Reform). 

Blackw.,  94.  419. 

Chr.  Exam.,  79.  211  (Radicalism  and  Progress). 

Chr.  Q.  Spec.,  10.  601. 

Independent,  1873,  Nov.  6,  p.  1380;  Nov.  13,  p.  1410 

Lippinc.,  14.  557. 

Nation.  30.  228,  282. 

I9th  Cent.,  8.  724. 


PAUPERISM  AND    ILLITERACY. 
313.   Is  pauperism  as  great  an  evil  to  society  as  illiteracy  ? 

Pauperism    is  the    extreme   of   poverty  which  requires 
relief;  while  illiteracy  may  be  considered  as  a  degree  of 


MISCELLANEOUS.  529 

ignorance  amounting  to  inability  to  read  and  write.  In 
general  both  imply  a  low  state  of  human  nature,  and  are 
often  found  together.  The  relation  of  the  two  to  crime 
will  be  an  interesting  point  of  inquiry.  The  pecuniary 
burden  which  pauperism  imposes  on  society,  though  the 
most  obvious,  is  not  its  worst  aspect.  It  may,  indeed, 
be  mere  helplessness ;  but  often  its  causes  are  moral  and 
its  influence  injurious.  Illiteracy  is  the  bane  of  a  re- 
public, and  general  intelligence  a  necessary  condition  of 
successful  self-government. 

PAUPERISM. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  13.  180. 

Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  928. 

Compendium  of  the  same,  Pt.  2,  pp.  1666,  1675. 

Behrends's  Socialism  and  Christianity,  Chap.  7,  8. 

Brace's  Dangerous  Classes  of  New  York. 

Dugdale's  The  Jukes. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  18.  662  ;  also,  8.  251-253. 

Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  2.  219-240. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  3.  1125. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit  Sci.,  3.  145. 

Lorimer's  Isms,  Old  and  New,  Chap.  15. 

Atlan.,  51.  638  ;   53.  771. 

Chr.  Exam.,  12.  116. 

Independent,  1873,  Nov.  6,  p.  1380. 

Penn.  Mo.,  8.  29;   9.  267. 

Penny  M.,  3.  231. 

ILLITERACY. 

Behrends's  Socialism  and  Christianity,  pp.  196-199. 

Brace's  Dangerous  Classes  of  New  York,  pp.  32~33' 

Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  1.  9T9-925- 

Compendium  of  the  same,  Pt.  2,  pp.  1645-1656. 

Rep.  of  the  Commiss.  of  Educ.,  1870,  pp.  467-502;  1872,  pp. 

956-963  ;  1880,  see  Index,  Illiteracy;  1881,  see  Index. 
Foster's  Essay  on  the  Evils  of  Pop.  Ignorance. 
S.  M.  Green's  Crime  (Philad.,  1889),  Art.  2,  Chap.  5. 
Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  of  Educ.,  pp.  193,  449  (Crime  and 

Education,  and  Illiteracy). 
34 


530    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

National    Perils    and    Opportunities :     Evangelical    Alliance, 

(Washington,   1887,)  p.  199. 
Wines's  State  of  Prisons  and  of  Child-saving  Institutions  in 

the  Civilized  World.     See  Index,  Ignorance  and  Illiteracy, 

etc. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  12.  580-581. 


POVERTY    AND    WEALTH    AS    PRODUCTIVE 
OF    CRIME. 

314.   Is  pwerty  more  an  occasion  and  provocation  of  crime 
than  wealth  ? 

While  neither  poverty  nor  wealth  can  be  a  necessary 
cause  of  crime,  each,  in  its  own  way,  may  furnish  the  occa- 
sion, temptation,  or  motive  to  crime.  Each,  in  its  influ- 
ence, may  weaken  moral  restraint,  the  one  by  urging,  on 
the  plea  of  necessity,  to  desperation,  the  other  by  fostering 
pride,  independence,  and  luxuriousness. 

In  the  criminal  class  the  poor  predominate  over  the  rich, 
partly  because  they  are  more  numerous,  and  partly  because 
the  crimes  of  the  rich  are  committed  with  greater  impunity. 
Wealth  has,  indeed,  its  necessary  uses ;  yet  examples  are  not 
wanting  in  history  which  show  that  a  great  and  rapid  in- 
crease of  wealth  is  often  accompanied  with  a  corresponding 
moral  corruption,  individual  and  national. 

POVERTY. 

Brace's  Dangerous  Classes  of  New  York. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy,  p.  172. 

Dugdale's  The  Jukes,  esp.  pp.  47-54,  105;  also  Table  12,  on 

p.  85. 

Wm.  D.  Morris's  Crime  and  its  Causes  (Lond.,  1891),  Chap.  5. 
Am.  Presb.  R.,  12.  582. 
Atlan.,  48.  458-460. 
Chr.  Exam.,  12.  116  (Negative). 
Fraser,  1.  635. 
Penn.  Mo.,  8.  29. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  1 3 1 

WEALTH. 

Lecky's  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  2.  250-253. 

Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  pp.  402-412. 

Montesquieu's    Grandeur    and    Decadence    of    the    Romans, 

Chap.  10. 

Strong's  Our  Country,  Chap.  9. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  2.  592. 


CITIES. 

315.  Are  great  cities,  considered  in  themselves  and  in  their 
influence,  a  greater  evil  than  good  ? 

Cities  are  centres  of  trade  and  of  various  industries,  of 
intelligence  and  of  all  human  interests.  In  the  constant 
intercourse  and  the  action  of  mind  on  mind,  there  is  pro- 
duced the  highest  intensity  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action. 
The  city  is,  therefore,  a  hot- house  for  the  rapid  and  large 
growth  of  both  good  and  evil.  Here  evil  is  found  in  its 
worst  forms,  and  good  in  its  best.  Thus  in  the  city 
extremes  meet,  especially  the  poorest  and  the  richest. 

The  city  may  be  considered  in  its  commercial,  political, 
social,  intellectual,  moral,  and  religious  aspects.  In  the 
concentration  of  all  that  it  comprises  is  found  its  large  power 
and  influence ;  but  the  character  of  its  power  for  good  or 
evil  is,  it  is  manifest,  dependent  on  the  prevailing  character 
of  its  inhabitants.  The  city  as  such  is  a  necessity  of  civili- 
zation, and  an  index  of  its  character  and  height.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  evil,  though  often  hidden,  attracts  more  atten- 
tion, and  is  more  written  about,  than  good.  Yet  history 
shows  that  the  growth  of  cities  is  accompanied  by  the  growth 
of  corruption. 

Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  V.  I,  Chap.  50-52 ;  V.  2,  Chap. 

88,  89. 

Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy,  Chap.  3. 
Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,  V.  18.     Social  Statistics  of  Cities. 
Chalmers's    Commercial   Discourses,   Disc.   6  (Dissipation  of 

Large  Cities). 


532      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (N.  Y.,  1854). 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  1.  468. 

Lieber's  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government,  Chap.  34  (Influence 

of  Capital  Cities). 
Loomis's  Mod.  Cities  and  their  Religious  Problems.     Same,  in 

part,  And.  R.,  7.  341,  475,  592;  8.  16. 

National  Perils  and  Opportunities  :  Evangelical  Alliance,  Wash- 
ington, 1887,  p.  19  (The  City  as  a  Peril:  Dorchester). 
Problems  of  Am.  Civilization,  pp.  130-171. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  3,  4. 
Strong's  Our  Country,  Chap  10. 
Vaughan's  Great  Cities  ;  or  Mod.  Society  viewed  in  its  Relation 

to  Intelligence,  Morals,  and  Religion  (Lond.,  1843). 
Atlan.,  38.  661  (Municipal   Indebtedness)  ;   52.  84  (Municipal 

Extravagance). 

Chr.  Union,  1890,  Oct.  2,  pp.  421,  425-430. 
Contemp.,  40.  710  (City  Life  in  the  U.  S.).     Same,  Eel.  M., 

98.  70. 

For.  Q,  19.  338. 
Forum,  2.  539  ;  4.  527 ;  5.  260. 

Fraser,  29.  91,  203  (Great  Cities,  their  Decline  and  Fall). 
Harper,  43.  903. 
Hours  at  Home,  4.  314,  506;  5.  25,  193,  339,  481  ;  6.  275,  437 

(Representative  Cities). 
M.  Am.  Hist.,  15.  365. 
Nation,  34.  245,  267. 
1 9th  Cent.,  14.  798. 

No.  Am.,  106.  351  ;  128.  21  ;  137.  218;  143.  87. 
O.  and  N.,  7.  249. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  1.  600 ;  18.  585 ;  30.  296,  520 ;  33.  484. 
Putnam,  5.  254. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  15.  418. 
Westm.,  130.  32. 

COUNTRY  AND   CITY. 
316.   Is  country  life  preferable,  on  the  whole  y  to  city  life  ? 

Human  life  may  be  said,  in  general,  to  have  two  factors, 
the  person  who  lives  it  and  his  surroundings,  —  of  the  lat- 
ter of  which  the  country  and  the  city  furnish  contrasted 
examples.  The  country  gives  nature ;  the  city,  man,  his 
presence,  influence,  acts,  and  works. 


MISCELLANEO  US.  533 

The  city  gives  a  higher  civilization,  more  and  more 
various  opportunities,  more  activity  and  enterprise,  more 
outward  stimulus  of  every  kind.  In  the  country,  on  the 
other  hand,  life  goes  on  more  slowly  and  steadily,  with  less 
of  anxiety  and  strain.  The  countryman,  if  less  alert  and 
less  cultivated  and  refined  than  the  citizen,  may  also  be  less 
superficial,  and  more  original.  He  is  developed  more  by 
contact  with  nature  than  by  contact  with  man,  and  is  there- 
fore likely  to  be  more  in  himself,  and  to  have  greater  weight 
of  character.  If  city  life  is  likely  to  become  wearing  and 
dissipated,  country  life  may  become  monotonous  and  weari- 
some. In  either  case,  it  is  the  mind  itself  which  makes  its 
own  life,  of  good  or  ill,  out  of  its  circumstances. 

Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (N.  Y.,  1854). 

De  Amicis,   Studies  of  Paris,  trans.  (N.  Y.,  1881),  Chap.  5, 

p.  243- 
Holland  :   i.  E very-Day  Topics,  1.  326,  329. 

2.  Ibid.,  2.  190,  202. 

3.  Lessons  in  Life,  Less.  12. 
Mitchell:   i.  My  Farm  of  Edgewood. 

2.  Rural  Studies. 

Smiles's  Life  and  Labor,  Chap.  8  (Town  and  Country  Life). 
Atlan.,  31.  462  (London  Social  Life)  ;  52.  713-715. 
Blackw.,  91.  139  ;  120.  483  (Country  Life). 
Chr.  Union,  1889,  July  25,  p.  101. 
Contemp.,  40.  710  (City  Life  in  the  U.  S.).     Same,  Eel.  M., 

98.  70. 
Contemp.,  52.  477  (In  Praise  of  the  Country).    Same,  Eel.  M., 

109.  790. 
Cornh.,  11.  548. 

Eel.  M.,  79.  204  (Social  New  York). 
Nation,  5.  256  ;  25.  327  (City  and  Country). 
1 9th  Cent.,  10. 80  (Health  and  Physique  of  our  City  Populations). 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  33.  484  (Injurious  Influences  of  City  Life). 
Quar.,  158.  400  (Country  Life).     Same,  Liv.  Age,  163.  554. 


534      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


SOLITUDE  AND  SOCIETY. 

317.    Is  solitude  more  favorable  to  mental  and  moral  im- 
provement than  society  ? 

For  mental  and  moral  improvement  solitude  and  society 
are  alike  necessary.  Solitude  considered  in  itself  is  negative, 
furnishing  occasion  for  the  mind's  activity  ;  while  society  is 
composed  of  positive  forces,  which  act  upon  and  stimulate 
the  mind.  In  solitude  the  individual  acts  in  and  of  himself; 
in  society  he  acts  in  view  of  and  in  respect  to  his  relations 
to  others. 

Solitude  is  more  favorable  to  thought ;  but  society  excites 
feeling,  gives  occasion  for  speech,  and  leads  to  action.  If 
a  man  would  know  himself,  he  must  retire  into  himself;  yet 
can  he  never  fully  know  himself  save  in  his  relation  to  others. 
The  inward  thought  is  born  into  the  world  through  the  form 
of  expression  in  words,  and  no  man  is  fully  conscious  of  him- 
self save  in  his  manifestation  to  others.  Genius,  from  its 
loftiness  and  largeness,  is  solitary ;  and  great  thoughts,  which 
work  vast  results,  are  produced  in  the  still  depths  of  the 
mind.  Yet  the  influence  of  society  pierces  the  inner  soli- 
tude, and  the  more  a  man  is  in  himself  the  more  will  he  be 
to  others. 

SOLITUDE. 

Alger's  Genius  of  Solitude. 

Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (N.  Y.,  1854),  pp.  188-191. 
Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Disraeli's  Curiosities  of  Lit.,  2.  211. 

Emerson's  Society  and  Solitude,  Ess.  i.     Same,  Atlan.,  1.  225. 
Epictetus's  Discourses,  trans,  by  Long,  Bk.  3,  Chap.  13. 
Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life,  Pt.  9,  Letters  5,  6. 
Montaigne's  Essays,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  38. 
Smiles's  Character  (Harper's  ed.),  p.  361. 
Zimmerman's  Solitude. 

Fraser,  63.  215.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  57.  499.     Same,  Liv.  Age, 
68.691. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  535 

SOCIETY. 

Burke  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  Pt.  i,  sec.  11. 
Chapin's  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (N.  Y.,  1854),  Chap.  8, 
Emerson's  Letters  and  Social  Aims,  Ess.  2. 
Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life,  Pt.  9,  Letter  1-5. 
Holland's  Every-Day  Topics,  2.  292. 
Hopkins's  Strength  and  Beauty,  Chap.  5. 
Maurice's  Social  Morality. 
Smiles's  Character,  Chap.  3. 
Blackw.,  119.  545.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  87.  88.    Same,  Liv.  Age, 

129.  008. 
Cornh.,  7.  31. 

SUCCESS. 

318.   Is  success  in  life  attained  more  by  will  than  by  good 
fortune  ? 

As  personal,  success  is,  in  kind  and  degree,  in  accordance 
with  ability  and  will.  Ability,  by  adaptation  and  applica- 
tion, makes  success  of  some  sort  possible ;  will,  by  con- 
centration and  persistence,  makes  it  actual.  Will  wields 
whatever  of  ability  there  may  be,  making  the  most  of  it, 
and  hence  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  personal  element 
of  success.  Yet  that  it  cannot  do  this  completely  will  be 
evident,  if  we  consider  that  it  does  not  necessarily  include 
certain  moral  qualities,  which  are  requisite  to  bring  the  will 
into  harmony  with  the  universal  moral  order,  and  are  .there- 
fore necessary  to  a  success  complete  and  permanent. 

But  the  human  will  has  not  only  inward  but  outward  lim- 
itations. It  is  neither  independent  nor  omnipotent.  Every 
man's  will  is  limited  by  other  wills  and  other  forces.  That 
these  alien  forces  shall  contribute  to,  or  even  that  they  shall 
not  hinder,  his  success,  is  not  in  his  absolute  power  to  de- 
cide. Hence  no  man's  success  is  entirely  of  his  own  will. 
How  much  of  it  is  personal  or  of  himself,  and  how  much 
impersonal  or  dependent  on  favoring  circumstances,  it  may 
not  be  possible  precisely  to  determine. 

It  may  be  added,  that  treatises  on  success  are  intended  to 
be  practical,  and  hence  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
personal  element. 


536    REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Adams's  Secret  of  Success. 

Arnold's  Turning  Points  in  Life. 

Beecher's  Lectures  to  Young  Men,  Lect.  i. 

Craft's  Successful  Men  of  To-day,  and  what  they  say  of  Success. 

Davidson's  Sure  to  Succeed. 

Emerson  :   i.  Conduct  of  Life  (Prose  Works,  V.  2),  Ess.  I,  2, 

Fate,  Power. 

2.  Society  and  Solitude  (Prose  Works,  V.  3),  Ess.  1 1. 
Foster's  Essay  on  Decision  of  Character.  • 
Hazlitt's  Table  Talk,  Ess.  17.    Miscellaneous  Works  (Philad.), 

V.  2.    Same,  The  Plain  Speaker  :  Opinions  on  Books,  Men, 

and  Things  (Lond.,  1826),  V.  2,  Ess.  i. 
Hinsdale's  Pres.  Garfield  and  Education,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  8. 
Kinsley's  Views  on  Vexed  Questions,  p.  231.     Same,  Penn  Mo., 

10.  413. 

Munger's  On  the  Threshold,  Chap,  i,  4,  5. 
Nicoll's  Great  Movements,  and  those  who  achieved  them. 
Palmer's  True  Success  in  Life. 
Platt's  Money  (N.  Y.  and  Lond.,  1889),  p.  213. 
The  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties  (Bost,  i84oX  2  vols. 
Seymour's  Self-made  Men. 
Smiles  :   i.  Self-Help. 

2.  Thrift. 
Walker's  Sermons  preached  in  the  Chapel  of  Harvard  College 

(Bost.,  1884),  Serin.  19,  p.  286. 
Cornh.,  2.  729. 
Forum,  2.  340. 

Fraser,  61.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  64.451. 
Galaxy,  11.  219. 

Independent,  1883,  May  17,  p.  4  (Crafts). 
Internal.  R.,  5.  778. 
Liv.  Age,  129.  636. 
New  Eng.,  11.  46. 

WAR. 

319.  Have  the  necessary  evils  of  war,  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  outweighed  the  good  results  it  has  produced! 

War  is  the  chief  subject  of  history,  especially  of  ancient 
history.  Its  innumerable  evils  are  confessedly  beyond  all 
computation  or  conception.  Its  cost  in  blood  and  treasure 
is  immense,  and  it  inflicts  untold  miseries.  Notwithstanding 


MISCELLANEOUS.  537 

all  this,  further  consideration  will  show  that  it  has  had  a  most 
important  influence,  as  well  for  good  as  for  evil,  on  human 
affairs.  The  right  of  a  nation  to  be,  implies  its  right  to  defend 
itself  against  aggression ;  hence  national  power  includes  the 
power  to  make  war. 

Wars  have  often  been  the  final  and  decisive  conflict  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  in  which  good  has  conquered.  But 
good  results  have  often  followed  from  wars  which,  considered 
in  themselves,  seemed  wholly  evil. 

War  may  be  like  a  storm,  which,  though  destructive,  may 
be  a  necessary  means  of  sweeping  away  the  corruptions  en- 
gendered during  a  period  of  peace. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Beckwith's  Peace  Manual,  Pt.  i,  2. 

Boyd's  Eclectic  Mor.  Philos.,  pp.  320-325. 

Channing's  Works,  3.  29  ;  4.  237. 

Collins,  The  Right  Way  (Host.),  Chap.  8-12. 

Dymond  :  i.  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  3,  Chap.  19. 

2.  On  War. 

Robt.  Hall's  Reflections  on  War  (N.  Y.,  1833),  1.  59. 
Sumner:  i.  The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,  Works,  1.  5. 

2.  War  System  of  the   Commonwealth  of  Nations, 

Works,  2.  171. 

3.  Sumner  on  Peace  and  War :  the  two  above  bound 

together. 

Bib.  Sac.,  35.  93. 
Brit.  Q.,  73.  80  (Am.  ed.,  p.  41). 
Eel.  M.,  104.  846. 
Putnam,  8.  157. 

Von  Suttner's  "Ground  Arms!"  trans.  (McClurg  &  Co.,  Chi- 
cago). 

NEGATIVE. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  223-225. 

De  Quincey's  Narrative  Papers,  2.  191. 

Harris's  Civilization  considered  as  a  Science  (N.  Y.,  1873),  PP- 

320-321. 

Lieber's  Political  Ethics,  V.  2,  Bk.  7,  Chap.  3. 
Lord's  Beacon  Lights  of  Hist.,  2.  366-371. 
Maurice's  Social  Morality,  Lect.  n. 
Chas.  Morris's  Civilization  (Chicago,  1890),  V.  I,  Chap.  9. 


538     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Ruskin's  Crown  of  Wild  Olives,  Lect.  3,  Works  (N.  Y.),  V.  13. 
Woolsey's  International  Law,  sec.  110-113. 
Eel.  M.,  69.  178;  76.  369. 
New  Eng.,  24.  303. 


SLAVERY  AND    INTEMPERANCE. 

320.   Has  slavery   been  a  greater  curse  to  mankind  than 
intemperance  f 

These  are,  respectively,  two  of  the  greatest  evils  which 
have  cursed  mankind.  Both  have  prevailed  extensively  in 
all  ages  and  in  all  lands. 

Slavery  is  a  wrong  inflicted  by  the  strong  upon  the  weak, 
while  intemperance  is  a  vice  for  which  the  victim  is  himself 
responsible.  The  making  and  keeping  of  another  a  slave 
is  one  of  the  highest  crimes,  which  brings  great  and  manifold 
evils,  not  only  on  the  hapless  victims,  but  on  the  slave 
owners  themselves,  and  on  the  country  in  which  the  wrong 
is  permitted  to  exist.  Intemperance  is  the  fruitful  parent 
of  manifold  crimes,  of  disease,  of  poverty,  and  of  untold 
misery. 

Slavery  strikes  at  the  manhood  of  its  victim,  forcibly  de- 
prives him  of  his  inherent  right  to  himself,  and  would  make 
him  absolutely  subject  to  the  irresponsible  will  of  another,  and 
thus  degrade  him  to  the  level  of  the  brute.  But  the  drunk- 
ard degrades  himself,  makes  himself  a  slave  to  appetite,  de- 
thrones reason  and  conscience,  and  becomes  a  brute  or  a 
demon.  Thus  the  inward  slavery  of  the  drunkard  is  more 
complete  and  disastrous  than  that  of  him  who  is  but  held  in 
outward  thrall.  Slavery,  with  all  its  nameless  horrors,  still 
has  its  mitigations ;  of  which,  in  intemperance,  it  would  be 
hard  to  find  a  trace. 

SLAVERY. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  15.  89. 
Bancroft's  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  old  ed.,  V.  i,  Chap.  5 ;  last  ed., 

V.  i,  Chap.  8. 

Blair's  Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Slavery  amongst  the  Romans. 
Blake's  Hist,  of  Slavery  and  the  Slave  Trade. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  539 

Brace's  Gesta  Christi,  Chap.  5,  6,  21,  28. 

Buxton's  African  Slave  Trade. 

Channing's  Works,  V.  2. 

Dymond's  Principles  of  Morality,  Ess.  3,  Chap.  18. 

B.  B.  Edwards's  Writings,  V.  2,  pp.  44,  79,  1 13.    Same,  Am.  Bib. 

Repos.,  ist  S.,  5.  138  ;  6.  in  ;  7.  33. 
Encyc.  Brit,  22.  129. 
Goodell  .  i.  Am.  Slave  Code. 

2.  Slavery  and  Antislavery. 
Gurowski's  Slavery  in  Hist. 
Hildreth's  Despotism  in  Am. 
Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.,  3.  722. 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  European  Morals,  1.  318-324. 
Lord's  Old  Roman  World,  pp.  415-417. 
Sumner  :  I.  White  Slavery  in  the  Barbary  States,  Works,  1.  383. 

2.  Barbarism  of  Slavery,  Works,  5.  i. 
Geo.  Thompson's  Lectures  and  Debates  on  Slavery. 

INTEMPERANCE. 

Lyman  Beecher's  Lectures  on  Intemperance,  Works,  V.  i. 

Blair's  Temperance  Movement,  Chap.  1-13. 

Channing's  Works,  2.  299. 

Clark's  Select  London  Lectures,  Lect.  6  (Gough). 

Clum's  Inebriety  (Philad.,  1888). 

Dorchester's  Liquor  Problem  in  all  Ages. 

Everett's  Orations,  1.  366. 

Gough:  i.  Autobiography  (1870). 

2.  Platform  Echoes. 

3.  Sunlight  and  Shadow,  Chap.  17-20. 

S.  M.  Green's  Crime  (Philad.,  1889),  Art.  2,  Chap.  4. 

Gustafson's  Foundation  of  Death. 

Hargreave's  Our  Wasted  Resources. 

Hubbard's  Opium  Habit  and  Alcoholism,  Chap.  25-29. 

Richardson's  Diseases  of  Mod.  Life,  Pt.  2,  Chap.  7-9. 

Strong's  Our  Country,  Chap.  7. 

Atlan.,  46.  544. 

Chr.  Mo.  Spec.,  9.  587,  645. 

Contemp.,  29.  28. 

Independent,  1874,  Feb.  19,  p.  5;  Mar.  5,  p.  16.  1881,  Nov.  3, 

p.  6. 

igth  Cent.,  12.  439. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  14.  379 ;  23.  760 ;  24.  45. 
Quar.,  139.  396  (Am.  ed.,  p.  210). 


540      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


DRUNKENNESS   AND   THE  OPIUM  HABIT. 

321.    Is  drunkenness  a  greater  evil  than  the  excessive  use 
of  opium  ? 

There  can  be  no  slavery  more  abject  than  that  engen- 
dered by  the  habitual  and  excessive  use  either  of  intoxicating 
liquors  or  of  opium.  Drunkenness  is  the  more  open,  and 
is  doubtless  more  common  and  extensive.  But  the  tempta- 
tions to  the  use  of  opium  are  insidious  and  strong,  and  the 
habit  becomes  a  despotic  and  relentless  tyranny,  the  grasp 
of  which  the  victim  becomes  almost  powerless  to  break.  Its 
effects,  likewise,  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral,  are  so  dis- 
astrous and  appalling  that  they  may  well  be  compared  with 
the  effects  of  drunkenness. 

The  facts  connected  with  these  two  habits  afford  the  most 
striking  illustrations  of  the  intimate  relation  which  exist  be- 
tween the  body  and  the  mind. 

For  remarks  and  references  on  drunkenness  see  the  pre- 
ceding question. 

THE  OPIUM  HABIT. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  12.  649-650. 

Calkins 's  Opium  and  the  Opium  Appetite. 

Day's  Opium  Habit. 

De  Quincey's  Confessions  of  an  Eng.  Opium  Eater. 

Encyc.  Brit,  8th  ed.,  16.  518.     9th  ed.,  17.  793-794. 

Hubbard's  Opium  Habit  and  Alcoholism,  Chap.  1-24. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  3.  959. 

Kane:   I.  Opium  Smoking.     2.  Drugs  that  Enslave. 

Meybert's  Notes  on  the  Opium  Habit  (pam.). 

Williams's  Middle  Kingdom  (N.  Y.,  1879);  also  rev.  ed.  (N.  Y., 

1883),  v-  2,  Chap.  20. 
Atlan.,  33.  697. 

Independent,  1881,  Dec.  8,  p.  19. 
Lippinc.,  1.  404. 
Liv.  Age,  41.  579;  52.  301. 
Nation,  34.  363. 
No.  Am.,  95.  374. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  12.  555  ;  27.  334  ;  33.  663. 
Scrib.  Mo.,  20.  416. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  5  4 1 

CREMATION. 
322.    Should  cremation  be  substituted  for  earth  burial? 

Earth  burial  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  general  and 
long  established  custom,  and  has  in  its  favor  the  affections 
and  religious  sentiments  in  a  matter  in  which  these  bear 
sway.  Cremation,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  have  the 
weight  of  argument,  and  most  of  the  articles  indicated  in 
the  references  advocate  it.  The  argument  against  earth 
burial  derived  from  sanitary  considerations  seems  to  carry 
most  weight ;  hence  the  actual  force  of  this  must  be 
tested  by  all  who  would  retain  this  as  against  cremation. 

Whether  cremation,  whatever  the  considerations  in  its 
favor,  is  likely  for  a  long  time,  if  ever,  to  displace 
earth  burial  as  practised  in  Christian  countries,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  grave  doubt. 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  3.  452  (Burial). 

Ap.  An.  Cyc.,  1876,  p.  216. 

Eassie's  Cremation  of  the  Dead  (Lond.,  1875). 

Encyc.  Brit..  8th  ed.,  5.  795  ;  10.  343.    9th  ed.,  6.  565. 

Johnson's  Cyc.,  2.  372  (Funeral  Rites). 

Appleton,  11.  619. 

Chr.  Exam.,  31.  137,  281. 

Contemp.,  23.  319.     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  4.  592. 

Contemp.,  23.  477,  553  ;  43.  858. 

Cornh.,  31.  329.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  84.  522. 

Cornh.,  39.  335.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  141.  309. 

Forum,  1.  64,  273. 

Fraser,  91.  730. 

Lippinc.,  13.  593. 

1 9th  Cent.,  23.  i. 

No.  Am.,  135.  266;  143.  353. 

Oberlin  R.,  1.  65. 

O.  and  N.,  4.  752. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  4.  592;  5.  225. 

Princ.,  N.  s.,  12.  144. 


542      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

ORIGIN  OF  LANGUAGE. 
323.    Is   language  of  merely  human  origin  t 

Language,  as  the  expression  of  thought,  is  the  great  in- 
strument of  communication  between  human  minds.  The 
mind  wields  it,  puts  itself  into  it,  and  thus  imparts  to  it 
some  degree  of  its  own  importance.  Is,  then,  that  which 
is  in  itself  so  human,  altogether  human  even  in  its  origin  ? 

The  origin  of  language,  though  of  much  interest,  is  not 
easy  to  determine  ;  and  in  the  absence  of  fact  resort  is  had 
to  speculation,  which  has  resulted  in  various  theories. 

Some  general  considerations,  at  least,  seem  plain.  Speech 
is  a  natural  function  of  man.  It  is  a  necessity  to  him  to  ex- 
press and  communicate  his  thoughts.  Is  language,  then,  as 
the  outward  and  common  medium  of  thought,  like  thought 
itself,  the  sole  product  of  the  mind?  Or  was  it  given  or 
taught,  at  least  in  some  elementary  form,  to  the  first  man 
by  his  Creator? 

Ap.  Am.  Cyc.,  10.  146-148. 

T.  S.  Bacon's  Beginnings  of  Religion  (Lond.,  1887),  Chap.  6. 

Blair's  Rhetoric,  Lect/ 6. 

Bowen,  A  Layman's  Study  of  the  Eng.  Bible,  pp.  63-64. 

Brown's  Grammar  of  Eng.  Grammars,  Introd.,  Chap.  4. 

Bushnell's  God  in  Christ  (N.  Y.,  1877),  pp.  13-16. 

Day's  Introd.  to  Eng.  Lit.,  Pt.  r,  Chap.  r. 

Encyc.   Brit.,  8th    ed.,    13.    185-188.     9th   ed.,   18.   766-76! 

(Whitney). 

Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  I,  2.  184-188. 
Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  Eng.  Lang.,  Lect.  2. 
Miiller's  Sci.  of  Lang.,  V.  i,  Chap.  9. 
Shedd's  Discourses  and  Essays  (And.,  1856),  p.  183.     Same 

Bib.  Sac.,  5.  651-652. 
Stewart's  Elements  of  the  Philos.  of  the  Human  Mind  (Edin  , 

1854),  3.  22  (Collected  Works,  V.  4). 
Thomson's  Laws  of  Thought,  sec.  29-31. 
Whitney  :  I.  Lang,  and  the  Study  of  Lang.,  Lect.  u. 

2.  Life  and  Growth  of  Lang.,  Chap.  14. 

3.  Oriental    and    Linguistic    Studies,    Chap.   9,    to. 

Ibid.,  Chap.  12.     Same,  No.  Am.,  114.  272. 


MISCELLANEO  US. 

Am.  Bib.  Repos.,  1st  S.,  10.  200-202. 

Bib.  Sac.,  27.  162  (Divinely  taught). 

Chr.  R.,  28.  383  (Divinely  given). 

Contemp.,  25.  713  (Whitney).     Same,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo..  7.  14 

Ed.  R.,  51.  529. 

Fortn.,  4.  544. 

No.  Am.,  97.  411  ;  109.  305. 

Westm.,  86.  88  (Am.  ed.,  p.  40);  102.  381  (Am.  ed.,  p.  182). 


WOMAN'S   INTELLECT. 

324.    Is  the  intellect  of  woman  essentially  inferior  to  that 
of  man  ? 

It  is  unquestionable  that  the  mind  of  woman  is  the 
human  mind,  as  distinguished  from  all  lower  forms  of 
mind.  She  has,  therefore,  the  distinctive  rational  and 
moral  faculties  which  pertain  to  man,  and  which  fit  her 
to  be  his  companion. 

Underlying  the  general  likeness  of  human  minds  which 
makes  them  one  are  subordinate  differences,  which  pertain 
to  the  individual,  to  race,  and  to  sex.  A  difference  of  mind 
between  man  and  woman,  as  well  as  a  general  likeness,  is 
requisite  in  order  to  their  mutual  relation  and  adaptation. 
Yet  this  difference  does  not  necessarily  imply  an  inequality. 
In  body  and  mind,  in  some  respects  one  may  be  superior, 
and  in  some  the  other.  If  man  is  more  logical,  woman  is 
more  intuitive  ;  if  man  has  more  strength  and  force  of  mind, 
woman  has  more  fineness  and  delicacy ;  if  man  has  greater 
profundity,  woman  has  a  higher  elevation. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  man's  intellectual  qualities  have 
thus  far  made  him  superior  to  woman ;  but  in  the  progress 
of  modern  civilization  woman's  capabilities  are  becoming 
more  developed  and  more  manifest.  If  her  development 
has  been  less  than  that  of  man,  her  opportunities  have  also 
been  less.  Will  woman,  then,  retrieving  in  the  future  what 
she  has  failed  to  achieve  in  the  past,  show  herself  in  intel- 
lect essentially  equal  to  man? 


544      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

Comte's  Pos.  Philos.,  trans.  (Lond.),  2.  136. 

Liv.  Age,  64.  184;  81.  609;  109.  23. 

Nat.  R.,  7.  333.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  46.  i.     Same,  Liv.  Age,  59. 

483- 

No.  Am.,  131.  62.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  11.  212-213,  219,  223. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  2.  552  (Ans.to  Mill) ;  4.  30  (Spencer)  ;  20.  184. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  20.  577.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  13.  78,  Ans.  on 

page  76. 

NEGATIVE. 

Buckle's  Essays  (N.  Y.,  1871),  p.  165.     Same,  Eraser,  57.  395. 

Same,  Liv.  Age,  57.  883.     Same,  Eel.  M.,  44.  190. 
Lotze's  Microcosmus,  trans.,  2  vols.  in  I,  2.  39-47. 
Mansfield's  Am.  Education,  Chap.  14. 
Mill's  Subjection  of  Women. 
Spencer's  Social  Statics,  Chap.  16,  sec.  2. 
Internat.  R.,  13.  123. 

No.  Am.,  132.  79.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  12.  6,  14,  22. 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  21.  70.     Same,  Woman's  J.,  13.  137-138. 
Westm.,  84.  352  (Am.  ed.,  p.  166). 
Woman's  J.,  1.  82;  11.  209,  212;  12.  62. 


QUESTIONS   WITH    REFERENCES. 


HISTORY. 

PAGE 

1.  Has  Greece  contributed  more  to  the  civilization  of  1 

the  world  than  Rome? I 

2.  Has  Rome  been  really  a  greater  power  in  the  world  j     2^ 

than  Greece? J 

3.  Has  England  been  as  great  a  power  in  modern  times 

as  Rome  was  in  ancient  times  ? 29 

4.  Was  the  battle  of  Marathon  more  important  in  its  re- 

sults than  the  battle  of  Waterloo  ? 30 

5.  Was  the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great  more  influential 

on  contemporaneous  and  subsequent  history  than 

the  life  of  Julius  Caesar  ? 32 

6.  Has  the  Feudal  System  been  productive  of  more  good 

than  evil  ? 37 

7.  Has  Monasticism  been  the  cause  of  more  good  than 

evil? 38 

8.  Did  the  Crusades  result  in  greater  good  than  evil?    .        40 

9.  Was  Chivalry,  in  its  character  and  influence,  more 

good  than  evil  ? 42 

10.  Was  the  Papacy,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  a  benefi- 

cent power  in  European  affairs  ? 44 

11.  Did  Charlemagne  have  more  influence  on  mediaeval 

history  than  Hildebrand  ? 46 

12.  Has  Christianity  been  the  most  potent  factor  in  the 

production  of  modern  civilization? 50 

13.  Has  the  Reformation  exerted  more  influence  on  mod- 

ern civilization  than  the  Renaissance?      ....        54 

14.  Do  the  facts  show  the  complicity  of  Mary,  Queen  of 

Scots,  in  Darnley's  assassination? 58 

15.  Was  the  execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  justi- 

fiable?           59 

1 6.  Was  the  Puritan  Revolution  justifiable  ?      ....        6 1 

35 


546      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

PAGB 

17.  Was  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  justifiable?     ...        62 

18.  Was  the  Protectorate  of  Cromwell  an  unjustifiable 

usurpation  and  tyranny  ? 64 

19.  Were  the  results  of  Richelieu's  policy  beneficial  to 

France? 66 

20.  Was  there  in  the  French  Revolution  more  of  good 

than  of  evil  ? 68 

21.  Is  the  career  of  Napoleon  indefensible  ?      ....        71 

22.  Was  the   banishment  of    Napoleon  to   St.   Helena 

justifiable? 74 

23.  Did  Napoleon  exhibit  as  great  military  genius   as 

Hannibal? 75 

24.  Have  the  New  England  Puritans  been  censured  too 

severely  for  their  treatment  of  the  Quakers  and  the 

so  called  witches  ? 78 

25.  Was  the  banishment  of  Roger  Williams  justifiable  ?  .        80 

26.  Was  the  Revolution  an  event  of  United  States  history 

more  important  and  influential  than  the  Civil  War?        81 

27.  Was  the  overthrow  of  slavery  in  the  United  States 

effected  more  by  the  influence  of  moral  than  of 
political  forces  ? 85 


BIOGRAPHY. 

28.  Ought  Socrates  to  have  saved  his  life  by  a  different 

defence,  or  by  escaping  from  prison  ? 89 

29.  Are  the  character  and  career  of  Cicero  deserving  of 

more  admiration  than  censure  ? 90 

30.  Is  Galileo  deserving  of  strong  condemnation  for  ab- 

juring what  he  knew  to  be  truth?    92 

31.  Is  the  character  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  considered  as  a 

whole,  deserving  of  admiration  ? 93 

32.  Are  the  character  and  career  of  Lord  Bacon,  as  a  ^ 

whole,  indefensible  ? I 

33.  Was  the  character  of  Bacon  deserving  of  the  appro-  [ 

bation  of  posterity  ? J 

34.  Was  Warren  Hastings,  in  view  of  his  career  as  a 

whole,  deserving  of  impeachment? 96 

35.  Was  Frederick  the  Great  a  greater  man  and  sovereign 

than  Peter  the  Great  ? 97 

36.  Is  Bismarck  a  greater  statesman  than  Gladstone?     .      101 
37-   Was  Howard  a  greater  philanthropist  than  Wilber- 

force? 104 


QUESTIONS    WITH  REFERENCES.  547 

PAGE 

38.  As  discoverer  and  as  man,  was  Columbus  greater 

than  Livingstone? 106 

39.  Was  Alfred  the  Great  as  great  and  good  as  Wash- 

ington ? 112 

40.  Can  Lincoln  justly  be  called  as  great  a  benefactor  to 

his  country  as  Washington  ?.     . 116 

41.  Should  Franklin  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  Amer- 

ican?       117 

42.  Was  Hamilton  a  greater  statesman  than  Jefferson?   .      120 

43.  Were  the  public  services  of  Webster  more  valuable 

to  the  country  than  the  public  services  of  Clay  ?     .      124 

44.  Has  Garrison's  part   in  the  Antislavery  movement 

been  overrated? 127 

45.  Was  John  Brown's  raid  into  Virginia  to  rescue  slaves 

unjustifiable  ? 

46.  Was  John  Brown's  execution  justifiable  ?      .     .     .     .  ^  129 

47.  Should  John  Brown  be  regarded  as  a  hero  and  mar- 

tyr, or  as  a  fanatic?       

48.  Is  Edison  the  greatest  living  American  inventor?      .      130 


POLITICS. 

49.  Is  Representative  Democracy,  in  its  principles,  institu- 

tions, and  operation,  the  best  form  of  government?      134 

50.  Is  the  Laissez  Faire,  or  let  alone  theory  of  govern-  -\ 

ment  the  true  one? !      /- 

51.  Is  the  paternal  theory  of  government  the  true  one?      j 

52.  Should  State  intervention  be  extended  ? J 

53.  Is  the  English  government  superior,  in  form  and  op- 

eration, to  the  government  of  the  United  States?        138 

54.  Are  the  benefits  of  party  government  greater  than  -\ 

its  evils? I 

55.  Is  the  existence  of  parties  necessary  in  a  free  gov-  >-  143 

ernment? 

56.  Is  party  spirit  productive  of  more  evil  than  good?     . -» 

57.  Is  universal  manhood  suffrage  true  in  theory  and  best 

in  practice  for  a  representative  government?      .     . 

58.  Should  an  educational  qualification  be  made  a  condi- 


tion  of  enjoying  the  right  of  suffrage  ? 


59.  Should  a  property  qualification  be  made  a  condition 

of  enjoying  the  right  of  suffrage  ? 

60.  Is  suffrage  a  natural  right  or  a  political  privilege  ?     .  - 

61.  Ought  the  negro  to  have  been  enfranchised  ?    ...      147 


>  145 


548       REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS, 

PACK 

62.  Should  the  suffrage  be  extended  to  woman  ?     .     .     .      148 

63.  Does  the  successful  maintenance  of  the  United  States 

as  a  nation  require  that  the  national  government 
grow  in  strength  ? 151 

64.  Are  the  conservative  forces  in  our  nation  sufficient  to 

insure  its  perpetuity  ? .       153 

65.  Should  the  present  method  of  electing  the  President 

be  superseded  by  some  other  method  ?      .     .     .     . 

66.  Should  Electors  for  President  and  Vice  President  be 

elected  by  the  vote  of  Congressional  districts,  with 
two  at  large  for  each  State,  instead  of  upon  gen-  . 
eral  ticket? .     .     .  r 

67.  Should  the  President  be  elected  by  a  direct  popular 

vote,  counted  by  federal  numbers  ?  Or,  Should  the 
President  be  elected  by  a  majority  of  the  nation's 
voters,  voting  directly  ? 

68.  Should  members  of  the  Cabinet  have  seats  on  the 

floor  of  Congress,  and  a  voice  in  its  debates  ?     ,     .       157 

69.  Do  the  advantages  of  the  Jury  system  outweigh  its 

evils? 

70.  Is  the  Jury  system  worthy  of  being  retained  ?     Or, 

(changing  sides,)  Ought    the   Jury  system   to  be 


abolished  ? 


158 


71.  Should  a  three-fourths  majority  be  sufficient  for  a 

decision  by  the  Jury  ?  Or,  (changing  sides,)  Is  the 
entire  unanimity  of  the  Jury  in  their  verdict  a  fea- 
ture of  the  Jury  system  which  should  be  retained?  ^ 

72.  Ought  the  death  penalty  to  be  retained  as  the  pun-  ^ 

ishment  for  wilful  murder? .     .  I  jfo 

73.  Ought  capital  punishment  to  be  abolished  ?       .     .     .  J 

74.  Should  the  chief  purpose  of  a  prison  be  to  punish  or 

to  reform  ? jg2 

75.  Should  there  be  legal  enactments  for  the  prevention 

of  suicide  ? Ig^ 

76.  Is  the  administering  of  the  oath   a  necessary  and  > 

efficient  means  of  securing  the  truth  from  wit- 
nesses, or  the  faithful  discharge  of  official  duty?  I  , 

77.  Should  all  civil  and  judicial  oaths  be  abolished?  .     .  j       5 

78.  Is  the  oath,  as  required  by  human  law,  in  accordance 

with  Scripture  ? .  J 

79.  Should  the  liberty  of  the  press  be  left  by  the  govern- 

ment unrestricted?   167 

80.  Is  the  union  of  Church  and  State  a  benefit  to  any 

nation? ,53 


QUESTIONS   WITH  REFERENCES.  549 

PAGE 

81.  Should  there  be  a  national  bankrupt  law  ?      "...      169 

82.  Should  Divorce  laws  be  strict  or  liberal  ?    .     .     .     .  ^ 

83.  Should  there  be  a  National  Divorce  law  instead  of  >•  171 

State  laws  ? j 

84.  Do  the  benefits  of  foreign  immigration  outweigh  its  -) 

evils?     Or,  Do  the  evils  of  foreign  immigration  | 
threaten  to  overbalance  its  benefits?    .     .     .     ,  \  173 

85.  Should  foreign  immigration  to  this  country  be  re-  I 

stricted  ? J 

86.  Has  Chinese  immigration  thus  far  been,  on  the  whole,  -^ 

rather  a  benefit  than  an  injury  to  the  country  ?     .   | 

87.  Should  it  be  the  policy  of  the  National  Government  }•  175 

to  impose  stringent  restrictions  on  Chinese  im-  | 
migration  ? ,  J 

88.  Should  the  government  own  and  operate  the  railroads?      176 

89.  Should   our   national  government  establish   postal 

telegraphy? 178 

90.  Is  the  legal  prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and  sale 

of  spirituous  liquors  as  a  beverage  right  in  prin- 
ciple and  efficient  in  practice  ?    ....          .  179 

91.  Would  the  political  union  of  Canada  with  the  United 

States  be  a  benefit  to  both  countries  ?     .     ... 

92.  Is  the  commercial  union  of  Canada  and  the  United 


States  desirable  ? 


182 


93.  Does  it  seem  likely  to  be  "  the  manifest  destiny  "  of 

Canada  to  become  a  sovereign  and  independent 
Republic?      ....          

94.  Is  the  so  called  Balance  of  Power  the  best  practi- 

cable arrangement  for  promoting  and  preserving 
just  and  harmonious  relations  between  the  Euro-  . 
pean  powers?  

95.  Is  the  federation  of  European  nations  desirable  and  j 

practicable  ? ... 

96.  Would  the  subversion  of  the  Turkish  Empire  be  a 

gain  to  its  subjects,  and  to  Europe  as  a  whole  ?    .       185 

97.  Is  Russian  Nihilism,  considered  as  apolitical  move- 

ment, justifiable? 186 

98.  Has  the  aristocracy  of  England  been,  on  the  whole, 

a  benefit  to  that  country  ?  ...       188 

99.  Should  the  English  House  of  Lords  be  abolished  ?     )     g 
100    Should  the  English  House  of  Lords  be  reformed?     > 

101.  Is  English  Rule  in  India,  considered  as  to  its  charac-  ~| 

ter  and  results,  capable  of  vindication  ?       .  r  191 

102.  Has  English  Rule  been  a  benefit  to  India?     .     .     .  J 


550      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


PAGB 


103.  Is   Ireland's  want  of  prosperity   to   be   attributed 

chiefly  to  English  misrule? 193 

104.  Ought  England  to  concede  the   Irish  demand  for 

Home  Rule? 194 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY. 

105.  Which  is  the  true  economic  policy  for  nations,  Pro- 

tection or  Free  Trade  ?     .          

106.  Is  Protection  or  Free  Trade  the  wiser  policy  for  the 

United  States  ? 

107.  Should  a  tariff  be  levied  exclusively  for  revenue  ?   - 

108.  Does  Protection  protect  ?    .     .     .     . 

109.  Has  Commerce  contributed  more  to  the  develop- 

ment of  modern  civilization  than  Manufactures  ? 
no.    Is  the  maintenance  of  a  double  standard  of  value  in 

exchanges  practicable  or  desirable  ?    .     .     . 
in.    Is  the  single  gold  valuation  the  true  economic  policy 

for  nations  ?        

1 12.  Can  an  income  tax  law  be  framed  which  shall  be  equi- 

table in  principle  and  efficient  in  administration  ? 

1 13.  Is  a  graduated  income  tax  just  or  expedient  ? 

114.  Should  church  property  which  is  used  exclusively 

for  public  worship  be  taxed  ? 

115.  Should  church  buildings,  with  their  lots  and  furnish- 

ings, be  exempt  from  taxation  ?          ... 

1 16.  Is  the  economic  system  of  Henry  George  sound  in 

its  general  principles  and  conclusions  ?  .     . 

117.  Does  poverty  increase  with  progress  ?       .     .     .     . 

118.  Is  the  private  ownership  of  land  wrong  and  pro- 

ductive of  evil  ? 

1 19.  Should  there  be  a  single  tax,  levied  on  land  values  ? 

120.  Are  monopolies,  on  the  whole,  more  a  good  than  an 

evil  to  the  public  ?  - 

121.  Is  the  present  general  tendency  to  minimize  com- 

petition by  the  formation  of  monopolies  an  evil  ? 

122.  Are  the  so  called  Trusts,  in  their  working  and  in- 

fluence, a  benefit  to  the  public  ? 

123.  Do  Trusts  threaten  our  institutions  so  as  to  warrant 

adverse  legislation  ? 

124.  Are  Trusts,  in  their  tendency,  subversive  of  indus- 

trial liberty? 

125.  Is  free  competition  in  production  and  trade  necessary 

for  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned  ?  . 


1 

I  198 

204 
I  206 

^209 

L, 


'  212 


215 


217 


219 


QUESTIONS   WITH  REFERENCES.  551 

PAGE 

126.  Do  the  benefits  of  competition  in  business  outweigh 

its  evils? 219 

127.  Is  the  principle  of  Industrial  Co-operation  capable  of 

general  and  successful  application  ? 

1 28.  Do  the  experiments  thus  far  in  Co-operation  justify, 

on  the  whole,  the  hope   of  its  ultimate  general  \  220 
adoption? 

129.  Is  Co-operation  in  business  more  beneficial  than 

competition? 

130.  Are  Trade  Unions  a  benefit  to  the  laboring  class?  .      223 

131.  Are  Strikes  right  ? ,....") 

132.  Are  Strikes  a  benefit,  on  the  whole,  to  the  laboring  \  225 

class  ? J 

133.  Has  the  use  of  machinery  been,  on  the  whole,  bene- 

ficial to  the  laboring  class  ? 228 

134.  Does  the  division  of  labor,  as  it  now  exists,  tend 

rather  to  hinder  than  to  help  individual  develop- 
ment ?       229 

135.  Should  usury  laws  be  repealed? 231 

136.  For  work  the  same  in  kind,  quantity,  and  quality,  ^ 

should  woman  receive  the  same  wages  as  man?      I 

137.  Should  woman  receive  the  same  wages  as  man  for  f 

work  or  service  of  equal  value  ? J 


EDUCATION. 

138.  Does  the  diffusion  of  intelligence  promote  general  ^ 

morality? f  236 

139.  Is  ignorance  productive  of  crime? J 

140.  Should  education  in  the  public  schools  be  compul- 

sory?    237 

141.  Is  national  aid  to  education  necessary  and  desira- 

ble?      238 

142.  Should  the  Bible  be  read,  as  a  religious  exercise,  in 

the  public  schools  ? 239 

143.  Should  emulation  be  employed  as  a  motive  in  edu- 

cation?      241 

144.  Are  college-bred  men,  as  a  class,  superior  in  mental 

attainments  and  culture  to  self-educated  men  ?     .      242 

145.  Is  the  co-education  of  the  sexes  in  higher  institutions 

desirable? 244 

146.  Are  State  Universities  superior,  in  their  principle 

and  operation,  to  Colleges  ?       ......  246 


552      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

PAGE 

147.  Is  the  establishment  of  a  National  University  by  the 

general  government  desirable  ? 248 

148.  Is  the  in  loco  parentis  system  of  College  govern- 

ment better  than  the  laissez  faire  system?    Or,  Is 
paternal  government  the  best  for  College  students  ?      249 

149.  Is  a  system  of  self-government  by  students  in  Col- 

leges desirable  ? 250 

150.  Are  examinations  a  true  test  of  scholarship,  and  a 

necessary  means  of  promoting  education  ?.     .     .      251 

151.  Is  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics  neces- 

sary to  a  liberal  education  ? 

152.  Is  the  mental  discipline  and  the  knowledge  gained 

from  the  study  of  the  Classics  superior  to  that 
gained  from  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  ? 

153.  Should  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  be  considered 


of  greater  importance  in  respect  to  culture  and 


^252 


utility  than  the  study  of  French  and  German  ? 

154.  Does  the  study  of  Greek  occupy  a  disproportionate 

place  in  the  ordinary  College  course  ?     .     .     .     . 

155.  Should  Greek  be  considered  as  essential  to  a  liberal 

education?     Or,  Should  Greek  be  elective  in  a 
College  course  ? J 

156.  Does  the  study  of  Philosophy  afford  a  better  mental  ^ 

discipline  than  the  study  of  Mathematics  ?  .     .     .1  259 

157.  Has  Mathematics  a  greater  utility  than  Philosophy?  J 

158.  Does  the  study  of  Astronomy  tend  more  to  expand  ^ 

the  mind  than  the  study  of  Geology  ?      .     .     .     .  ! 

159.  Is  the  study  of  Geology  of  more  practical  benefit  j 

than  the  study  of  Astronomy  ? J 

160.  Is  the  reading  of  History  more  beneficial  to  the  indi- 

vidual mind  than  the  reading  of  Biography  ?     .     .      263 

161.  Is  the  radical  change  of  English  orthography  to  pho- 

netic spelling  desirable  or  practicable  ?  .     .     .     .      264 


LITERATURE. 

162.  Does  the  Iliad  afford  conclusive  evidence  of  various  ^ 

authorship? I 

163.  Is  the  authorship  of  the  Iliad  and  of  the  Odyssey  \ 

identical? J 

164.  Is  the  Iliad  a  greater  epic  than  the  ^Eneid  ?    .     .     .      270 

165.  Is  the  Divine  Comedy  a  greater  poem  than  Paradise 

Lost? 273 


QUESTIONS   WITH  REFERENCES.  553 

PAGE 

1 66.  Are    the   Greek  dramatic  writers  superior  to  the 

English? 277 

167.  Is  ancient  oratory  superior  to  modern  ?      ....  280 

1 68.  Was  Demosthenes  a  greater  orator  than  Cicero  ?     .  282 

169.  Was  Thucydides  a  greater  historian  than  Tacitus  ?  285 

170.  Is  the  Elizabethan  literature  superior  to  the  Vic- 

torian?       289 

171.  Is  Chaucer  a  greater  poet  than  Spenser  ?.     .     .     .  291 

172.  Was  Shakespeare  a  greater  genius  than  Goethe  ?    .  294 

173.  Was  the  apparent  madness  of  Hamlet  altogether 

feigned  ? 299 

174.  Is  it  probable  that  Lord  Bacon  is  the  real  author  of 

the  plays  attributed  to  Shakespeare  ?      .     .     .     .  300 

175.  Was  Goethe  a  greater  poet  than  Schiller  ?      .     .     .  302 

176.  Is  Goethe's  Mephistopheles  a  better  conception  of 

the  Prince  of  Darkness  than  Milton's  Satan  ?  .     .  304 

177.  Was  Dryden  a  greater  poet  than  Pope?     ....  306 

178.  Was  Wordsworth  a  greater  poet  than  Coleridge  ?    .  309 

179.  Was  Byron  a  greater  poet  than  Shelley?   ....  312 

180.  Is  Browning  a  greater  poet  than  Tennyson  ?.     .     .  317 

181.  Is  Bryant  a  greater  poet  than  Longfellow  ?     .     .     .  322 

182.  Has  the  prevalence  of  fiction  in  modern  literature 

been,  on  the  whole,  a  good  rather  than  an  evil  ?  .  326 

183.  Is  the  enduring  fame  of  Scott  dependent  more  on 

his  novels  than  on  his  poems  ? 329 

184.  Is  Thackeray  a  greater  novelist  than  Dickens  ?  .     .  331 

185.  Does  George  Eliot,  as  a  woman  of  genius,  surpass 

Mrs.  Browning? 335 

1 86.  Is  Balzac  a  greater  novelist  than  Hugo?    ....  339 

187.  Is  Montaigne  a  better  essayist  than  Addison  ?     .     .  342 

1 88.  As   a  thinker  and  writer  should   Carlyle  outrank 

Emerson  ? 346 

189.  Should  Hawthorne  be  ranked  higher  among  Ameri- 

can authors  than  Irving?      350 

190.  Has  the  influence  of  Voltaire,  through  his  writings, 

been  on  the  whole  beneficent  ? 354 

191.  Has  Rousseau's  influence  on  modern  thought  been 

on  the  whole  beneficial  ? 356 


ART. 

192.  Is  Greek  art  surpassed  by  Renaissance  art  ?  ...      359 

193.  Are  art  and  science  antagonistic  ? 362 


554      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 

PAGE 

194.  Is  the  general  prevalence  of  natural  science  prejudi- 

cial to  the  cultivation  of  high  art  ? 362 

195.  Does  the  prevalence  of  natural  science  tend  to  check 

the  poetic  spirit  ? 363 

196.  Does  art,  in  its  principles  and  works,  imply  the  moral  ?  ) 

197.  Is  art  amenable  to  an  ethical  standard?  >  3°5 

198.  Is  the  influence  of  the  fine  arts  favorable  to  religion  ?      366 

199.  Has  photography  done  more  to  popularize  art  than  ^ 

engraving  ? >  368 

200.  Is  photography  of  greater  importance  than  engraving?  J 

201.  Is  Michael  Angelo  a  greater  artist  than  Raphael  ?  .      370 

202.  Is  Beethoven  a  greater  composer  than  Mozart?       .      372 

203.  Has   Wagner  made   an  important  improvement  in 

musical  theory  and  practice? 

204.  Is  Wagner's  musical  drama  likely  to  be  "  the  music 


of  the  future  "  ? 


205.   Should  Wagner  be  ranked  with  the  great  masters  in 
music?  


374 


SCIENCE. 

206.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Bacon  contributed  more  to 

the  progress  of  physical  science  than  the   dis- 
coveries of  Newton  ? 379 

207.  Was  Darwin  a  greater  scientist  than  Agassiz?     .    .  ^ 

208.  Did  Darwin  contribute  as  much  to  the  advancement  L  383 

of  science  as  Newton  ? J 

209.  Does  the  Atomic  Theory  find  in  science  sufficient 

confirmation  to  establish  its  validity  ?     .  .      389 

210.  Does  the   Nebular   Hypothesis  furnish    the    best 

natural  solution  of  the  origin  of  the   planetary 
and  stellar  worlds  ? 

211.  Is  the  Nebular  Hypothesis  likely  to  win  an  estab- 

lished place  in  science  ? 

212.  Has  the  organic  world  been  developed  from  primor- 

dial germs  by  natural  forces  ? 

213.  Is  the  evidence  sufficient  to   prove   the   origin  of 


species  by  natural  evolution  ? 


390 


214.  Is  the  theory  of  evolution  an  established  truth  of 

science?  ...  i 

215.  Is  man  descended,  by  process  of  evolution,  from 

some  lower  animal  ? 304 

216.  Is  the  human  mind  different  from  the  brute  mind  in 

kind,  and  not  merely  in  degree  ? 396 


QUESTIONS  WITH  REFERENCES.  555 

PAGE 

217.  Is  the  evidence  sufficient  to  prove  the  great  antiquity 

of  the  human  race  ?     .........  399 

218.  Have  the  races  of  men  a  specific  unity  and  a  common  •] 

origin  ?      .......     .          .....  j-  401 

219.  Are  the  races  of  men  of  diverse  origin  ?     .     .     .     .  J 

220.  Is  the  savage  state  the  primitive  and  natural  con-  ^ 

dition  of  man  ?  ............  \  402 

221.  Is  savagism  a  degenerate  condition  of  human  nature  ?  J 

222.  Is  heredity  more  influential  in  the  development  of 

man,  intellectually  and  morally,  than  his  environ- 
ment ?  ...............      404 

223.  Is  genius  hereditary  ?     ..........      406 

224.  Can  history  be  reduced  to  a  science  ?    .....  -» 

225.  Is  national  character  formed  more  by  physical  than  j 

by  moral  causes  ?    .     .     .          .......   \  407 

226.  Has  climate  a  preponderating  influence  in  deter-  | 

mining  the  character  and  history  of  a  nation  ?         J 

227.  Is  the  practice  of  vivisection  for  scientific  purposes  ^ 

justifiable  ?     ...........     .     .  >-  409 

228.  Is  vivisection  cruel  and  unnecessary  ?,....  J 

229.  Is  it  probable  that  the  planets  or  other  heavenly  -» 

bodies  are  inhabited?      .........  f  410 

230.  Is  there  a  plurality  of  inhabited  worlds  ?     .     .     .     .  J 

231.  Has  Arctic  exploration  been  justified  in  its  results  ?      412 

232.  Are  the  revelations  of  the  telescope  more  wonderful 

than  the  revelations  of  the  microscope  ?  .     .          .      414 

233.  Is  the  telegraph  more  useful  than  the  telephone  ?    .      415 

PHILOSOPHY. 

234.  Have  the  Greek  Sophists  been  unduly  depreciated  ? 

235.  Are  the  opinions  and  practices  of  the  Greek  Sophists 

incapable  of  vindication  ?  .     .     .       J 

236.  Is  philosophy  as  much  indebted  to  Socrates  as  to  ^ 

Plato  ?       .     .     .  .;'.'.  '     *  L  423 

237.  Should  Socrates  be  held  in  as  high  estimation  as 

Plato?      ......... 

238.  Is  Plato  a  greater  philosopher  than  Aristotle  ?     .     •.  ~\ 

239.  Is  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  on  the  whole,  superior  to  \  425 

that  of  Aristotle  ?    ....... 

240.  Has  the  influence  of  Stoicism  been,  on  the  whole,  *| 

beneficial?      .    ............  1-431 

241.  Did  Stoicism,  as  modified  by  its  Roman  teachers,  j 

.  J 


show  a  real  approximation  to  Christianity  ? 


556     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

PAGE 

242.  Has   the  philosophy  of   Descartes,  in   its  general  1 

spirit  and  main  features,  entered  as  a  permanent 
element  into  modern  philosophy  ? 

243.  Has  Descartes  contributed  more  to  theology  than 

to  science? • 

244.  Is  Descartes's  proof  of  the  existence  of  God  valid  ? 

245.  Is  Descartes's  inference  of  being  from  thought  legit- 

imate ? 

246.  Has   the   influence    of    Locke's    philosophy    been  "j 

greater  than  its  intrinsic  worth  ?       I 

247.  Does  the   practical   merit    of    Locke's   philosophy  | 

atone  for  its  want  of  breadth  and  comprehension?  J 

248.  Does  Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  give  a  true  " 

account  of  the  origin  and  limitations  of  knowledge 
in  the  human  mind  ? , 

249.  Do  Kant's  writings,  taken  together,  afford  a  self-  ' 

consistent  and  positive  philosophical  system  ? 

250.  Was  Kant  a  greater  philosopher  than  Descartes  ?    . 

251.  Is  inductive  reasoning  the  best  method  of  arriving  ^ 

at  truth  ? 

252.  Has  the  relative  importance  of  inductive  reasoning,  >  441 

as  a  method  of  arriving  at  truth,  been  overrated 
in  modern  times  ? J 

253.  Is  there  more  ground  for  the  philosophy  of  Optimism 

than  for  the  philosophy  of  Pessimism  ?  .     .     .     .     443 

254.  Is  all  the  force  manifested  in  the  material  universe  "j 

to  be  attributed  to  the  immediate  volition  of  God  ?  I 

255.  Is  mind  the  only  real  force,  and  the  first  cause  of  f 

all  motion  ? J 

256.  Is  thought  possible  without  language  ? > 

257.  Is  language  identical  with  thought  ? > 

258.  Is  the  imagination  more  potent  in  its  influence  than  -i 

the  reason  ? I 

259.  Are  men  in  general  as  much  influenced  by  reason  | 

as  by  imagination? J 


ETHICS. 


1 


260.  Is  the  human  will  free  ? 

261.  Is  the  power  of  contrary  choice  a  necessary  element 

in  the  freedom  of  the  will  ? V  453 

262.  Does  Edwards's  Inquiry  respecting  the  Freedom  of  I 

the  Will  lead  to  conclusions  false  and  untenable  ?  J 

263.  Is  conscience  a  true  moral  guide  ? ^58 


QUESTIONS   WITH  REFERENCES. 


557 


PAGE 

264.  Can  conscience  be  educated  ? 458 

265.  Is  it  ever  right  to  deceive  ? ") 

266.  Is  falsehood  never  justifiable  ?     . " \  4^° 

267.  Does  insanity  always   preclude  all  moral  respon-  •> 

sibility? I 

268.  Is  insanity  ever  consistent  with  amenability  to  pun-  [  ^ 

ishment  ? j 

269.  Are  such  popular  amusements  as  dancing  and  card- 

playing  harmful  in  their  influence  ? 462 

270.  Is  the  theatre,  in  its  character  and  influence,   as  ^ 

shown  in  the  past  and  the  present,  more  evil  than 

good  ? U64 

271.  Can  the  theatre  be  reformed  ? 

272.  Should  Christians  never  attend  the  theatre  ?  .     .     .  J 


RELIGION. 

273.  Was  Monotheism  the  primitive  religion  ?  .     .     .     .  "j 

274.  Was  Polytheism  the  primitive  religion  ?....!•  470 

275.  Was  Fetichism  the  primitive  religion  ? J 

276.  Are  there  tribes  of  Atheists  ?  . 472 

277.  Has  Buddhism,  in  its  essential  principles  and  spirit,  *| 

more  of  truth  and  good  than  of  error  and  evil  ?    .  >  473 

278.  Is  Buddhism  more  unlike  than  like  Christianity  ?    .  J 

279.  Has  the  influence  of  Mohammedanism  been  more 

evil  than  good  ? 476 

280.  Has   the    Roman   Catholic   Church  been,   on    the 

whole,  a  blessing  to  the  world  ? 478 

281.  Has  Jesuitism  been  a  greater  evil  than  good  ?      .     .      480 

282.  Has  the  division  of  Protestant  Christians  into  sects  ^ 

been,  on  the  whole,  injurious  to  the  interests  of  I     ~ 
true  religion  ? I 

283.  Is  Christian  union  to  become  organized  ?  .     .     .     .  J 

284.  Has  the  influence  of  American  Unitarianism  been 

favorable  to  Christianity  ? 484 

285.  Does  faith  precede  and  give  rise  to  knowledge  ? .     .  -j 

286.  Is  faith  founded  on  and  commensurate  with  rea-  ^487 

son  ? J 

287.  Has  scepticism  aided  more  than  it  has  retarded  the 

progress  of  truth  ? 488 

288.  Has  Mysticism  a  rightful  place  in  philosophic  and  ^ 

religious  thought  ? ! 

289.  Has  Christian  Mysticism  exerted,  on  the  whole,  a  f  49 

favorable  influence  in  the  promotion  of  true  piety  ?  J 


558     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

PAGE 

290.  Can  the  immortality  of  the  human  soul  be  estab- 

lished from  the  light  of  nature  ? 492 

291.  Is  the   hypothesis   of  a   probation  after  death  ra-  ^ 

tional  and  probable  ? I  494 

292.  Does  human  probation  terminate  at  death  ?    .     .     .  J 

293.  Are  the  growth   and   prosperity  of  the   Christian 

Church  best  promoted  by  revivals  of  religion  ?  ^>G 

294.  Is  the  Salvation  Army  calculated,  by  its  organiza-  "1 

tion  and  methods,  to  promote  true  Christianity 
among  the  lower  classes  ? • 


295.    Is  the   Salvation    Army   entitled   to   the   approval, 


498 


encouragement,    and    support    of   the   Christian 
Church  ? 

296.  May  a  Christian  minister  do  as  much  good  in  pas- 

toral work  as  by  preaching  ? 499 

297.  Should  all  preaching  be  extempore  ? ^ 

298.  Should  the  written  sermon  be  permitted  to  hold  the  >  501 

place  it  has  gained  in  general  preaching  ?   .     .     .  j 

299.  Should  political  subjects   be   introduced   into    the  ^ 

pulpit  ? I  502 

300.  Should  clergymen  be  politicians  ? J 

301.  Is  the  pulpit  more  influential  than  the  press  ?      .     .      504 

302.  Are  Church  creeds  promotive  of  the  interests  of  ^ 

Christianity  ? I     ~< 

303.  Should  public  assent  to  a  creed  be  made  a  condition  j  ^ 

of  Church  membership  ? J 

304.  Was  Moses  greater  than  David  ? 507 

305.  Has  Paul  been  more  influential,  by  his  labors  and 

writings,  in  the  development  and  promotion   of 
Christianity,  than  John? 510 

306.  Has  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  exerted  as  much 

influence  as  Kempis's  Imitation  of  Christ?      .     .      514 

307.  Did  Luther  contribute  more  to  the  promotion  of  the 

Reformation  than  Calvin  ? 516 

308.  Has  the  influence  of  Wesley,  in  the  promotion  of 

religious  thought  and  life,  been  greater  than  that 

of  Calvin  ? 519 

309.  Is  Calvin's  part  in  procuring  the  condemnation  and 

death  of  Servetus  deserving  of  censure  ?     .     .     .      521 

310.  Was  J.  H.  Newman  superior  in  ability,  character, 

and  influence  to  F.  D.  Maurice  ? 522 

311.  Was  Beecher  a  greater  preacher  than  Spurgeon  ?    .      525 


QUESTIONS   WITH  REFERENCES.  559 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

PAGE 

312.  Is  the  Reformer  of  greater  importance  to  society 

than  the  Conservative  ? 527 

313.  Is  pauperism  as  great  an  evil  to  society  as  illiteracy  ?      528 

314.  Is  poverty  more  an  occasion  and   provocation   of 

crime  than  wealth  ?    .     . 530 

315.  Are  great  cities,  considered  in  themselves  and  in 

their  influence,  a  greater  evil  than  good  ?    .     .     .      531 

316.  Is  country  life  preferable,  on  the  whole,  to  city  life  ?      532 

317.  Is  solitude  more  favorable  to  mental  and  moral  im- 

provement than  society  ? 534 

318.  Is  success  in  life  attained  more  by  will  than  by  good 

fortune  ? 535 

319.  Have  the  necessary  evils  of  war,  in  the  history  of 

the  world,  outweighed  the  good  results   it   has 
produced  ? 536 

320.  Has  slavery  been  a  greater  curse  to  mankind  than 

intemperance  ? 538 

321.  Is  drunkenness  a  greater  evil  than  the  excessive 

use  of  opium  ? 540 

322.  Should  cremation  be  substituted  for  earth  burial  ?  .      541 

323.  Is  language  of  merely  human  origin  ? 542 

324.  Is  the  intellect  of  woman  essentially  inferior  to  that 

of  man  ? 543 


560      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES. 


HISTORY. 

1.  Have  the  Jews  fulfilled  a  more  important  mission  in  the 

world  than  the  Greeks  ? 

2.  Was  Caesar's  reign  a  benefit  to  Rome  ? 

3.  Was  the  assassination  of  Caesar  justifiable? 

4.  Has  the  conversion  of  the  Northern  nations  to  Christianity 

had  more  influence  on  modern  civilization  than  the  con- 
version of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 

5.  Do  modern  cities  have  as  great  a  power  on  society  and 

civilization  as  had  ancient  cities? 

6.  Are  the  evils  of  modern  society  less  than  were  the  evils  of 

ancient  society  ? 

7.  Has   England  contributed  more  to  European  civilization 

than  France? 

8.  Has  Germany  contributed  more  to  the  Protestant  religion 

than  England  ? 

9.  Was  William  the  Conqueror  justifiable  in  his  invasion  and 

conquest  of  England  ? 

10.  Does  Froude  in  his  History  of  England  give  a  true  repre- 

sentation of  the  life  and  character  of  Henry  VIII.  ? 

11.  Will  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  rank  higher  in  English 

history  than  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ? 

12.  Were  the  Earl  of  Cowrie  and  his  brother  guilty  of  a  con- 

spiracy to  murder  King  James  ? 

13.  Was  the  Maid  of  Orleans  actuated  by  a  real  inspiration  from 

above  ? 

14.  Was  Charlotte  Corday  justifiable  in  the  assassination  of 

Marat  ? 

15-  Was  the  massacre  of  Saint  Bartholemew  premeditated  ? 

1 6.   Did  Mohammed  do  more  to  advance  than  to  hinder  civili- 
zation ? 

17-   Was  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  a  benefit  to  France  ? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES,          561 

18.  Were  the  English  and  the  French  justifiable  in  joining  with 

the  Turks  against  Russia  in  the  war  of  the  Crimea  ? 

19.  Was  Russia  justifiable  in  making  war  on  Turkey  in  1877? 

20.  Was  Bismarck's  policy  as  a  whole  beneficial  to  Germany  ? 

21.  Was    Germany  justifiable   in  compelling  France  to  cede 

Alsace  and  Lorraine? 

22.  Did  the  Magna  Charta  do  more  for  the  advancement  of 

civil  liberty  than  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ? 

23.  Has  the  United  States  been  more  influential  in  the  general 

promotion  of  civil  liberty  than  England  ? 

24.  Has  the  American  Revolution  contributed  more  to  the  pro- 

motion of  civil  liberty  than  the  French  Revolution  ? 

25.  Was  the  war  of  the  United  States  with  England  in  1812 

justifiable  on  the  part  of  the  former  country  ? 

26.  Was  the  Mexican  war  unjustifiable  ? 

27.  Were  the  operations  of  the  "  underground  railroad,"  for  the 

running  off  of  slaves  to  Canada,  justifiable? 

28.  Was  the  resistance  by  Northern  men  to  the  Fugitive  Slave 

Law  justifiable  ? 

29.  Will  the  Declaration  of  Independence  be  regarded  in  the 

future  as  a  more  important  document  than  the  Emanci- 
pation Proclamation  ? 

30.  Has  the  American  Civil  War  resulted  in  greater  good  to  the 

country  than  evil  ? 

31.  Do  America's  glories  outweigh  her  dishonors  ? 

32.  Does  the  history  of  the  United  States  show  that  New  Eng- 

land has  had  a  controlling  influence  on  the  national  in- 
stitutions and  character  ? 

33.  Did  Burr  aim  at  an  independent  empire  ? 

34.  Was  Henry  of  Navarre  justified  in  changing  his  religion  ? 

35.  Should  Jefferson  Davis  have  been  prosecuted  and  punished 

for  treason  ?     Or,  Was  it  expedient  to  pardon  Jefferson 
Davis? 

BIOGRAPHY. 

36.  Was  Cromwell  as  good  as  he  was  great  ? 

37.  Is  the  guilt  of  Arnold's  treason  capable  of  extenuation  ? 

38.  Is  the  odium  generally  attributed  to  Thomas  Paine  in  ac- 

cordance with  his  real  desert  ? 

39.  Was  Lord  Beaconsfield's  career  a  benefit  to  England  ? 

40.  Was  the  influence  of  Garrison  more  potent  for  the  over- 

throw of  slavery  than  the  influence  of  Sumner  ? 

41 .  Was  Webster's  7th  of  March  speech  worthy  of  him  ? 

42.  Was  Webster  a  greater  orator  than  Clay  ? 

36 


562      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

43.  Was  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson  justifiable  ? 

44.  Was  Grant  a  greater  general  than  Lee  ? 

45.  Is  Stanley  entitled  to  more  credit  for  what  he  has  done  in 

the  exploration  of  Africa  than  Livingstone  ? 

POLITICS 

46.  Is  Plato's  doctrine,  that  the  philosopher  should  be  the  ruler, 

correct  ? 

47.  Would  the  prevalence  and  adoption  of  the  principles  of 

Socialism  benefit  the  laboring  classes  ? 

48.  Is  Bellamy's  scheme  of  Nationalism,  as  given  in  "  Looking 

Backward,"  practicable  or  desirable  ? 

49.  Is  France  likely  ever  to  regain  her  former  rank  among  the 

European  nations  ? 

50.  Would  a  democracy  be  better  for  England  than  her  present 

government  ? 

51.  Is  it  probable  that  England  will  ever  become  democratic  in 

government  and  in  society  ? 

52.  Should   the   countries   composing  the  British  Empire  be 

formed  into  a  federal  government  ? 

53.  Is  England  likely  to  continue  a  nation  as  long  as  the  United 

States  ? 

54.  Has  the  Democratic  party  been  a  benefit  to  the  country  ? 

55.  Is  the  mission  of  the  Republican  party  really  ended  ? 

56.  Is  a  separate  party  required  for  the  promotion  of  the  pro* 

hibition  of  the  liquor  traffic  ? 

57.  Is  it  better  to  be  an  Independent  in  politics  than  an  adherent 

to  a  party  ? 

58.  Has   "  the   machine  "  a  legitimate  place  and  function  in 

politics  ? 

59.  Is  the  principle  of  rotation  in  office  wrong  in  theory  and 

vicious  in  practice  ? 

60.  Ought  municipal  elections  to  be  non-partisan,  and  to  be  un- 

affected by  national  or  state  politics  ? 

61.  Should  the  President  serve  six  years,  and  be  ineligible  for  a 

second  term  ? 

62.  Should  the  President  choose  all  the  members  of  his  Cabinet 

from  his  own  party  ? 

63.  Should  the  Federal  Government  control  the  national  elec- 

tions ? 

64.  Should  the  national  capital  be  removed  to  a  more  central 

position  ? 

65.  Ought  provision   to  be    made    for  the    representation  of 

minorities  ? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES.          563 

66.  Is  further  acquisition   of  territory  by  the  United  States 

desirable  ? 

67.  Is  Catholicism  a  menace  to  our  Republican  institutions  ? 

68.  Should  the   Indians  longer  be  treated  as  wards  of  the 

government  ? 

69.  Is  there  likely  to  be  political  equality  between  the  white  and 

colored  races  in  the  South  ? 

70.  Should  the  time  in  which  a  foreigner  can  become  natural- 

ized in  this  country  be  extended  to  fourteen  years  ? 

71.  Should  the  power  of  pardon  be  in  the  hands  of  the  executive  ? 

72.  Should    drunkenness    be  considered  as   a   mitigation    of 

crime  ? 

73.  Should  the  public  lands  be  granted  in  aid  of  railroads  ? 

74.  Is  ambition  a  greater  cause  of  corruption  in  politics  than 

the  love  of  money  ? 

75.  Is  the  social  democracy  which  has  prevailed  in  this  country 

imperilled  by  the  rise  of  an  aristocracy  of  wealth  ? 

76.  Is  it  the  interest  of  England  to  retain  her  colonies  ? 

77.  Would  compulsory  voting  be  practicable  or  desirable  ? 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 

78.  Should  capital  control  labor  ? 

79.  Should  capital  and  labor,  as  mutually  dependent,  be  con- 

sidered as  on  an  equality  ? 

80.  Can  there  be  an  industrial  as  well  as  a  political  democracy  ? 

81.  Is  the  wages  system  the  best  for  the  laborer  ? 

82.  Does  the  laboring  class  have  its  proportionate  share  in  the 

general  progress  ? 

Should  the  labor  day  be  restricted  to  eight  hours  ? 
Should  the  American  merchant  marine  be  subsidized  ? 
Shall  we  have  free  coinage  of  silver  ? 
Is  it  expedient  to  tax  personal  property  ? 
Should  convict  labor  be  allowed  to  compete  with  labor  in 

general  ? 
8.   Should  the  government  establish  post-office  savings  banks  ? 

EDUCATION. 

89.  Is  the  chief  aim  in  education  the  development  of  the  mental 

faculties  ? 

90.  Should  the  acquisition  of  various  knowledge  be  considered 

as  the  chief  aim  of  an  education  ? 

91.  Should  a    course  of  instruction   aim  to  develop  all  the 

faculties  equal  1}*  ? 


564      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

92.  Should  a  course  of  instruction  aim  to  call  out  and  strengthen 

individual  peculiarities  of  intellect  and  taste  ? 

93.  Should  education  have  a  practical  aim  ? 

94.  Should  education  aim  at  general  mental  culture,  without 

respect  to  any  pursuit  in  life  ? 

95.  Would  a  course  of  general  reading  prove  a  good  substitute 

for  a  course  of  study,  when  the  latter  is  impracticable  ? 

96.  Can  a  course  of  study  not  supplemented  by  reading  furnish 

an  adequate  education  ? 

97.  Do  the  present  systems  of  education  provide  adequately 

for  the  culture  of  the  moral  nature  ? 

98.  Should  public  education  be  secular  ? 

99.  Should  provision  be  made  in  the  higher  institutions  of 

learning  for  the  systematic  study  of  the  Bible  ? 

100.  Should  education  in  public  schools  be  restricted  to  the 

common  branches  ? 

101.  Should  high  schools  be  a  part  of  the   common  school 

system  ? 

102.  Should  more  attention  be  given  in  the  higher  institutions 

of  learning  to  the  English  language  and  literature  ? 

103.  Is  the  study  of  history  of  greater  importance  than  the  study 

of  literature  ? 

104.  Is  literature  a  more  important  factor  in  the  development 

of  the  mind  than  science  ? 

105.  Does  a  collegiate  education  contribute  to  one's  fitness  for 

a  business  life  ? 

1 06.  Would  a  collegiate  education  make  a  man  a  better  farmer  ? 

107.  Are  there  too  many  colleges  ? 

108.  Should  there  be  separate  colleges  for  women  ? 

109.  Does  the  higher  education  of  women  tend  to  destroy  the 

desire  for  home  life  ? 

1 10.  Are  German  universities  superior  to  English  ? 

in.    Should  a  university  undertake  the  moral  guidance  of  its 
students  ? 

112.  Should  attendance  at  recitations  in  college  classes  be  com- 

pulsory ? 

113.  Should  gymnastic  exercise  be  made  compulsory  in  colleges  ? 

1 14.  Should  music  be  made  elective  in  a  college  course  ? 

115.  Should   manual  training  be   compulsory    in    the    public 

schools  ? 

116.  Should  secret  societies  be  permitted  in  colleges  ? 

117.  Should  honorary  degrees  be  conferred  by  colleges  and 

universities  ? 

118.  Should  poor  young  men  who  are  studying  for  the  ministry 

receive  aid  ? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES.          565 

LITERATURE. 

1 19.  Has  Grecian  literature  been  more  influential  than  Roman 

literature  on  modern  literature  and  society  ? 

120.  Is  modern  literature  superior  to  ancient  ? 

121 .  Is  the  progress  of  civilization  favorable  to  poetry  ? 

122.  Has  literature  contributed  more  to  the  progress  of  civiliza- 

tion than  science  ? 

123.  Has  the  multiplication  of  books  tended  to  make  literature 

superior  or  inferior  ? 

124.  Do  newspapers  contribute  more  to  general  intelligence  than 

books  ? 

125.  Does  poetry  exert  a  greater  influence  than  fiction? 

126.  Do  works  of  imagination  exert  a  greater  influence  than 

works  of  instruction  ? 

127.  Is  fiction  as  a  form  of  literature  equal  to  the  drama  ? 

128.  Does  modern  fiction  fill  the  place  in  literature  once  occu- 

pied by  the  drama  ? 

129.  Is  satire  on  the  whole  beneficial  ? 

130.  Does  an  author's  style  do  more  to  procure  him  readers 

than  his  thought  ? 

131.  Does  the  use  of  illustrations  in  a  discourse  have  more  in- 

fluence than  argument  ? 

132.  Is  America  likely  to  excel  in  literature  ? 

133.  Is  Gibbon  a  greater  historian  than  Hume  ? 

134.  Is  Macaulay  a  greater  historian  than  Froude  ? 

135.  Is  Macaulay  a  better  essayist  than  Carlyle  ? 

136.  Is  George  Eliot  a  greater  novelist  than  George  Sand  ? 

137.  Is  Lowell  a  greater  humorist  than  Holmes  ? 

ART. 

138.  Has  religion  been  aided  more  by  poetry  than  by  music  ? 

139.  Has  music  more  influence  in  refining  the  character  than 

literature  ? 

140.  Does  classical  music  have  more  influence  than  popular 

music  ? 

141.  Should  art  have  a  larger  place  in  a  course  of  study  for  a 

liberal  education  ? 

142.  Has  music  more  power  over  men  in  general  than  oratory  ? 

SCIENCE. 

143.  Does  the  study  of  natural  science  tend  to  produce  a  belief 

in  materialism  ? 


566      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

144.  Is  the  present  general  tendency  of  science  to  materialism  ? 

145.  Is  science  of  greater  real  importance  than  philosophy? 

146.  Has  natural  science  contributed  more  to  the  progress  of 

civilization  than  philosophy  ? 

147.  Has  science  had  more  influence  on  philosophy  than  phi- 

losophy on  science  ? 

148.  Can  science  ever  supersede  metaphysics? 

149.  Is  there  greater  certainty  in  natural  science  than  in  meta- 

physics ? 

150.  Does  Darwinism  logically  lead  to  Atheism  ? 

PHILOSOPHY. 

151.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Plato  exerted  a  greater  influence  on 

speculative  thought  than  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  ? 

152.  Were  Plato's  "Ideas"  objective? 

153.  Has  Greece  exerted  more  influence  by  its  philosophy  than 

by  its  literature  ? 

154.  Was  the  philosophy  of  Plato  a  preparation  for  Christianity  ? 

155.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Plato  been  a  help  to  theology  ? 

156.  Has  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  been  a  help  to  theology? 

157.  Has  philosophy  had  more  influence  on  Christianity  than 

Christianity  on  philosophy  ? 

158.  Has  the  scholastic  philosophy  been  too  much  depreciated 

in  modern  times  ? 

159.  Is  Spinoza's  philosophic  system  obnoxious  to  the  charge 

of  Atheism  ? 

1 60.  Does  the  fame  of  Hume  rest  more  on  his  philosophical 

than  on  his  historical  and  political  writings? 

161.  Is  Comte's  classification  of  the  sciences  correct? 

162.  Is  Hegel's  philosophic  system  pantheistic  ? 

163.  Is  the  Agnosticism  of  Spencer  a  truth  of  philosophy  ? 

164.  Has  the  progress  of  philosophic  thought  issued  in  certain 

definite  results  ? 

165.  Are  metaphysics  likely  ever  to  become  obsolete  ? 

166.  Is  there  ground  for  believing  some  system  of  philosophic 

idealism  ? 

167.  Is  materialism  in  some  form  likely  to  continue  as  a  phase 

of  philosophy  ? 

168.  Have  time  and  space  an  objective  reality? 

169.  Is  the  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  body  greater  than  the 

influence  of  the  body  on  the  mind  ? 

170.  Are  the  German  systems  of  philosophy  in  general  more 

worthy  of  the  name  of  philosophy  than  the  English 
systems  ? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES.          567 

ETHICS. 

171.  Is  the  idea  of  right  ultimate  ? 

172.  Is  the  benevolence  theory  a  true  system  of  ethics? 

173.  Is  utilitarianism  a  true  theory  of  ethics  ? 

174.  Is  the  doctrine  of  the  simplicity  of  moral  action  true  ?    Or, 

Can  virtue  and  sin  be  in  the  mind  at  the  same  time  ? 

175.  Is  happiness  the  true  end  of  all  sentient  existence  ? 

1 76.  Does  obligatknTever  transcend  ability  ? 

177.  Does^norality  keep  pace  with  civilization? 

1 78.  Is  crime  the  result  more  of  physical  than  of  moral  causes  ? 

179.  Is  a  man  responsible  for  his  belief? 

1 80.  Is  it  wrong  to  fish  for  pleasure  ? 

181.  Are  public  amusements  in  general  productive  of  more  good 

than  evil? 

RELIGION. 

182.  Is  there  a  science  of  religion  ? 

183.  Have  the  ethnic  religions  been  on  the  whole  a  benefit  to 

the  heathen  world  ? 

184.  Have  the  ethnic  religions  served  as  a  preparation  for 

Christianity  ? 

185.  Is  man  naturally  immortal? 

1 86.  Is  the  doctrine  of  immortality  taught  in  the  Old  Testament  ? 

187.  Is  Butler's  argument  from  analogy  conclusive  ? 

1 88.  Is  Drummond's  theory  of  natural  law  in  the  spiritual  world 

tenable  ? 

189.  Is   exact  justice  secured   by  the  necessary  working   of 

natural  and  moral  law? 

190.  Are  natural  consequences  a  proper  and  adequate  recom- 

pense for  moral  acts,  whether  good  or  evil  ? 

191.  Is   the   inerrancy  of   the    Bible   essential  to   its   Divine 

authority  ? 

192.  Was  the  Pentateuch  written  or  compiled  by  Moses  ? 

193.  Does  God  foreknow  contingent  events  ? 

194.  Is  selfishness  the  sum  and  essence  of  sin? 

195.  Is  there  conclusive  evidence  that  miracles  have  occurred 

since  the  days  of  the  Apostles  ? 

196.  Is  Christ  to  be  considered  more  in  respect  to  his  earthly 

life  and  teachings,  than  in  respect  to  his  present  relation 
to  the  Church  and  world  as  glorified  ? 

197.  Has  philosophizing  in  religion  been  helpful  in  its  pro- 

motion ? 


568      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

198.  Has  the  influence  of  modern  thought  on  theology  tended 

to  its  improvement  ? 

199.  Is  there  a  determinable  and  essentially  unvarying  standard 

of  orthodoxy  in  theological  thought  ? 

200.  Does  theology  need  reconstruction  ? 

201.  Is  the  so  called  "New  Theology"  more  Scriptural  and 

rational  than  the  old? 

202.  Should  Christian  character  be  the  sole  condition  of  Church 

membership  ? 

203.  Is  the  Congregational  Church  polity  more  Scriptural  than 

the  Episcopal  ? 

204.  Is  the  Methodist  Church  polity  on  the  whole  to  be  preferred 

to  the  Congregational  ? 

205.  Has  dogmatism  hindered  more  than  it  has  helped  the  pro- 

gress of  truth  ? 

206.  Should  religious  liberty  be  restricted  by  authority  ? 

207.  Is  there  good  reason  to  believe  that  Christian  missions 

will  be  the  means,  under  God,  of  the  conversion  of  all 
men  to  Christianity? 

208.  Have   Protestant  missions  resulted   in  more  good  than 

Catholic  missions? 

209.  Is    Home    Missionary  work  of   more    importance    than 

Foreign  ? 

210.  Does  faith  in  the  carrying  on  of  charitable  enterprises 

preclude  general  or  personal  solicitation?  Or,  Should 
asking  for  contributions  to  benevolent  enterprises  be 
only  of  God  in  prayer? 

211.  Is  the  power  of  the  pulpit  on  the  wane? 

212.  Is  logic  more  effective  in  the  pulpit  than  exhortation? 

213.  Is  the  doctrinal  in  preaching  of  less  importance  than  the 

practical  ? 

214.  Should  the  Law  rather  than  the  Gospel  be  preached  to  the 

impenitent? 

215.  Is  fear  more  influential  in  leading  men  to  become  religious 

than  love  ? 

216.  Does  religion  concern  more  the  feelings  than  the  under- 

standing or  intellect  ? 

217.  Is  the  Quietism  taught  in  the  writings  of  Madame  Guyon 

and  of  Fdnelon  in  accordance  with  a  true  and  healthful 
Christian  experience? 

218.  Is  it  better  to  meet  a  sceptic  by  argument,  or  by  an  appeal 

to  his  conscience  ? 

219.  Is  Christianity  the  absolute  and  final  religion,  and  destined 

to  become  universal  ? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES.          569 

220.  Is    the  Christianity  of  the  present  an  improvement  on 

primitive  Christianity? 

221.  Do  the  Scriptures  teach  the  resurrection  of  the  same  body 

that  died  and  was  buried  ? 

222.  Does  the  Bible  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  final  annihilation 

of  the  wicked  ? 

223.  Should  women  be  licensed  to  preach? 

224.  Should  church  pews  be  rented? 

225.  Is  the  publication  of  a  Sunday  paper  wrong? 

226.  Should  railroad  trains  run  at  all  on  Sunday  ? 

227.  Is  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  more  an  ally 

than  a  rival  to  the  Church? 

228.  Has  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  done  more 

good  among  the  young  than  the  Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.  ? 

229.  Is  Emerson  shown  by  his  writings  to  be  rather  a  Pantheist 

than  a  Theist? 

230.  Was  Chalmers  a  greater  preacher  than  Guthrie? 

231.  Did    President   Edwards   exert  a  greater    influence    on 

theological   thought  and  religious  life   than  President 
Finney  ? 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

232.  Has  the  religious  progress  of  the  world  kept  pace  with  its 

intellectual  progress  ? 

233.  Has  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  world  kept  pace  with 

its  material  progress  ? 

234.  Does  modern  progress  consist  more  in  the  material  than 

in  the  intellectual  ? 

235.  Does  the  progress  of  modern  civilization  consist  more  in 

the  intellectual  than  in  the  moral  ? 

236.  Has  public  sentiment  more  influence  than  the  laws  ? 

237.  Does   the   law   furnish    greater    scope  for  oratory  than 

preaching? 

238.  Does  the  author  exert  more  influence  than  the  speaker  ? 

239.  Is  oratory  on  the  decline? 

240.  Has  the  legal  profession  been  a  blessing  to  the  world? 

241.  Has  the  medical  profession  been  a  blessing  to  the  world? 

242.  Is  the  medical  profession  of  more  utility  to  society  than 

the  profession  of  law  ? 

243.  Are  the  opportunities  of  the  physician  for  doing  good  as 

many  and  great  as  those  of  the  minister  ? 

244.  Does    learning    tend   as   much  as  wealth   to  create  an 

aristocracy  ? 


570    REFERENCES  FOR   LITERARY   WORKERS. 

245.  Do  learning  and  wealth  have  more  influence  on  men  in 

general  than  character? 

246.  Does  character  have  more  influence  than  talent  ? 

247.  Is  an  active  life  better  than  a  quiet  and  contemplative 

life  ? 

248.  Has  the  man  of  leisure,  other  things  being  equal,  more 

enjoyment  than  the  busy  man? 

249.  Has  action   contributed   more   to   human   progress   than 

thought  ? 

250.  Is  wealth  a  greater  power  in  the  world  than  learning  ? 

251.  Do  popular  leaders,   who   inaugurate  great   reformatory 

and  religious  movements,  exert   more   influence   than 
great  thinkers  ? 

252.  Is  success  in  any  legitimate  pursuit  always  better  than 

failure  ? 

253.  Is  success  in  life  commonly  due  more  to  opportunity  than 

to  ability  ? 

254.  Is  more  accomplished  by  steady  effort  than  by  enthu- 

siasm-? 

255.  Were  the  great  men  of  ancient  times  superior  to  the  great 

men  of  modern  times  ? 

256.  Is  talent  becoming  more  common  and  great  genius  more 

rare  ? 

257.  Does  the  delivery  count  for  more,  in  the  impression  made 

by  an  oration,  speech,  or  sermon,  than  the  thought  or 
style? 

258.  Is   the  spoken  or  written  form  of  language  the   more 

important  ? 

259.  Does  brilliancy  of  talent,  in  speaking  or  writing,  really 

produce  a  greater  result  than  solidity  ? 

260.  Is  logic  more  effective  with  men  in  general,  in  prompting 

to  the  forming  and  holding  of  opinions,  than  prejudice? 

261.  Is  it  better  to  be  young  than  old  ? 

262.  Is  it  better  to  be  rich  than  poor  ? 

263.  Is  it  better  to  be  famous  than  obscure  ? 

264.  Is  it  better  to  be  great  than  mediocre  ? 

265.  Do  the  pleasures  of  life  outweigh  its  ills  ? 

266.  Is  life,  to  the  mass  of  men,  worth  living  ? 

267.  Is  egotism  always  a  fault  ? 

268.  Has  beauty  more  influence  on  the  mind  than  power  ? 

269.  Is  personal  beauty  a  boon  to  its  possessor  ? 

270.  Is  the  influence  of  the  mother  on  her  children  greater  than 

that  of  the  father  ? 

271.  Should  women  have  the  right  to  propose? 


QUESTIONS   WITHOUT  REFERENCES.          571 

272.  Will  curiosity  lead  a  man  farther  than  necessity  will  drive 

him  ? 

273.  Is  the  order  of  Freemasons  a  benefit  to  society? 

274.  Is  Homoeopathy  preferable  to  Allopathy  ? 

275.  Is  our  civilization  perishable  ? 

276.  Is  conversation  more  influential  than  letter-writing? 
277    Should  women  be  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law? 

278.  Should  all  charity  be  organized  ? 

279.  Should  the  metric  system  be  made  by  law  uniform  in  the 

United  States? 

280.  Has  the  steam-engine  been  a  greater  benefit  to  the  world 

than  the  telegraph  ? 

281.  Has  the  railway  done  more  to  promote  commerce  and 

travel  than  the  steamship? 

282.  Does  society  in  France  compare  favorably,  in  resg^ct  to 

general  morality  and  religion,  with  society  in  England  ? 

283.  Is  it  probable  that  the  Asiatic  nations  will  become,  in  civili- 

zation and  religion,  essentially  like  the  Western  nations  ? 

284.  Has  more  good  than  evil  resulted  from  the  prominence 

given  in  modern  times,  in  Church,  State,  and  society,  to 
the  individual  ? 

285.  Is  pauperism  more  the  result  of  untoward  circumstances 

than  of  individual  inefficiency  ? 

286.  Have  women   had   more  influence   in  the   promotion  of 

morality  and  religion  than  men  ? 

287.  Does  Booth's  scheme  for  the  relief  of  "the  submerged 

tenth  "  offer  a  comprehensive  and  practicable  solution 
of  the  problem  ? 


572      REFERENCES  FOR   UTERARY   WORKERS. 


CYCLOPAEDIAS  AND   PERIODICALS   REFERRED 
TO   IN   ABBREVIATED   FORMS. 


All  the  Year  ....  All  the  Year  Round. 

Amer American. 

Am.  Bib.  Bepos.  .     .     .  American  Biblical  Repository. 

Am.  J.  Educ American  Journal  of  Education,  Bar- 
nard's. 

Am  J.  Sci. American  Journal  of  Science. 

Am.  Law  B American  Law  Review. 

Am.  Natural American  Naturalist. 

Am.  Presb.  B.      ...  American  Presbyterian  Review. 

Am.  Q.  Beg American  Quarterly  Register. 

Am.  Theol.  B.      .     .     .  American  Theological  Review. 

Ap.  Am,  Cyc Appleton's  American  Cyclopaedia. 

Ap.  An.  Cyc Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia. 

Ap.  Cyc.  Am.  Biog.  .  .  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  American 
Biography. 

AttJ Art  Journal. 

BaPt-  Q Baptist  Quarterly  Review. 

Bib-  Sac Bibliotheca  Sacra. 

Blackw Blackwood's  Magazine. 

Bnt-  Q British  Quarterly  Review. 

Brownson Brownson's  Quarterly  Review. 

Cath.  Presb Catholic  Presbyterian. 

Oath.  World    ....  Catholic  World. 

Chamb.  Cyc.  of  Eng.  Lit  Chamber's  Cyclopaedia  of  English 
Literature. 

Chamb.  Encyc.     .     .     .  Chambers^  Encyclopaedia. 

<***}>.  J Chambers's  Journal. 

Cent Century. 

Chaut Chautauquan. 

Chr-Exam Christian  Examiner. 

Cbj.  Mo.  Spec.     .     .     .  Christian  Monthly  Spectator. 

Chr-  Ob* Christian  Observer. 

Chr-  Q-  SP*5 Christian  Quarterly  Spectator. 


ABBREVIATED  FORMS.  573 

Chr.  E Christian  Review. 

Chr.  Union       ....  Christian  Union. 

Cong.  Q Congregational  Quarterly. 

Contemp Contemporary  Review. 

Cornh Cornhill  Magazine. 

Dial  (Ch.)       ....  Dial  (Chicago). 

Dub.  B Dublin  Review. 

Dub.  Univ.      .'    .     .     .  Dublin  University  Magazine. 

Eel.  M Eclectic  Magazine. 

Eel.  K Eclectic  Review. 

Ed.  E Edinburgh  Review. 

Encyc.  Brit Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

Ev.  Sat Every  Saturday. 

Ex.  H.  Lee Exeter  Hall  Lectures. 

For.  Q Foreign  Quarterly  Review. 

Fortn Fortnightly  Review. 

Fraser Fraser's  Magazine. 

F.  W.  Bapt.  Q.    .     .     .  Free  Will  Baptist  Quarterly. 

Harper      .     .  •  .     .     .  Harper's  Magazine. 

Hunt Hunt's  Merchant's  Magazine. 

Independent    ....  Independent  (New  York). 

Internal.  E International  Review. 

J.  H.  Univ.  Studies  .     .  Johns  Hopkin's  University  Studies  in 

History  and  Political  Science. 

Johnson's  Cyc.      .     .     .  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia. 

J.  Spec.  Philos.     .     .    .  Journal  of  Speculative  Philosophy. 

Kiddle  and  Schem's  Cyc.  Kiddle    and    Schem's    Cyclopaedia  of 

of  Educ Education. 

Lalor's  Cyc.  of  Polit.  Sci.  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia  of  Political  Science. 

Lib.  J Library  Journal. 

Lippinc Lippincott's  Magazine. 

Lit.  and  Theol.  E.     .     .  Literary  and  Theological  Review.. 

Lit.  W.  (Bost.)    .     .     .  Literary  World  (Boston). 

Liv.  Age LittelFs  Living  Age. 

Lond.  Q London  Quarterly  Review. 

Luth.  Q Lutheran  Quarterly  Review. 

(  McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia  of 

McClintock  and  Strong's  }       Biblical>  Theological,   and  Ecclesi- 

°yc-  ••••••(       iastical  Literature. 

Macm.  .     .     .     .     .     .  Macmillan's  Magazine. 

M.  Am.  Hist Magazine  of  American  History. 

Meth.  Q Methodist  Quarterly  Review. 

Meth.  E Methodist  Review. 

Hod.  E Modern  Review. 

Murray Murray's  Magazine. 


5/4     REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 

Nat.  M National  Magazine. 

Nat.  Q National  Quarterly  Review. 

Nat.  E National  Review. 

New  Eng New  Englander. 

N.  Prince New  Princeton  Review. 

New  York  E New  York  Review. 

19th  Cent Nineteenth  Century. 

Niles's  Eeg Niles's  Register. 

No.  Am North  American  Review. 

No.  Brit North  British  Review. 

Oberlin  E Oberlin  Review. 

0.  and  H. Old  and  New. 

Penn  Mo Penn  Monthly. 

Penny  Cyc Penny  Cyclopaedia. 

Penny  M Penny  Magazine. 

Polit.  Sci.  Q Political  Science  Quarterly. 

Pop.  Sci.  Mo Popular  Science  Monthly. 

Pop.  Sci.  E Popular  Science  Review. 

Presb.  Q Presbyterian  Quarterly  Review. 

Presb.  B. Presbyterian  Review. 

Princ Princeton  Review. 

Princ.,  N.  s Princeton  Review,  New  Series. 

Pnb.  Opin Public  Opinion. 

Putnam Putnam's  Monthly  Magazine. 

Quar Quarterly  Review. 

Q.  J.  Econ Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics. 

Eev.  of  Eevs.       .     .     .  Review  of  Reviews. 

Eetros Retrospective  Review. 

Sat.  E Saturday  Review. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyc,  .  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopaedia  of  Bibli- 
cal, Historical,  Doctrinal,  and  Prac- 
tical Theology,  rev.  ed. 

Scrib.  M Scribner's  Magazine. 

Scrib.  Mo Scribner's  Monthly. 

Spec Spectator. 

Spirit  Pilg Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims. 

St.  Paul's St.  Paul's  Magazine. 

Sup.  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.  .  .  Supplement  of  the  Popular  Science 
Monthly. 

TTnita.  E. Unitarian  Review. 

TIniv.  Q Universalist  Quarterly. 

University  Q University  Quarterly. 

Westm Westminster  Review. 

Woman's  J Woman's  Journal. 


ABBREVIATIONS   USED. 


575 


ABBREVIATIONS   USED. 


Abr.     .     . 

.    Abridged. 

Geog.  .    o    . 

Geography,  Geograph- 

Am.    .     . 

.    America,  American. 

ical. 

An.     .     . 

.    Ancient,  Annual. 

Germ.  .     .     . 

German. 

Ans.    .     . 

.    Answer,  Answered. 

Gov.    .    .    . 

Government. 

And.   .     . 

.    Andover. 

Gr.      ... 

Greek. 

App.    .     . 

.    Appendix. 

Hist.    .     .     . 

History,  Historical. 

Art.     .     . 

.    Article. 

Id.       ... 

The  same. 

Aub.    .     . 

.    Auburn. 

Introd.     .     . 

Introduction,       Intro- 

Bait.   .     . 

.     Baltimore. 

ductory. 

Biog.    .     . 

.     Biography. 

Intern  at. 

International. 

Bk.      .     . 

.     Book. 

It.  or  Ital.    . 

Italian. 

Bost.    .     . 

.     Boston. 

Lang.  .     .     . 

Language. 

Brit.    .     . 

.     British. 

Lat.     .     .     . 

Latin. 

Buf.     .     . 

.     Buffalo. 

Led.    .     .     . 

Lecture. 

Camb. 

.    Cambridge. 

Lib.     .    .     . 

Library. 

Cent.   .     . 

.     Century. 

Lit.      .     .     . 

Literature,  Literary. 

C7i.      .     . 

.     Church. 

Land.  .    .     . 

London. 

Chap.  .     . 

.     Chapter. 

Man.  .     .     . 

Manual. 

Chr.     .     . 

.     Christian. 

Med.   .     .     . 

Mediaeval. 

Cm.     .     . 

.    Cincinnati. 

Misc.  .     .     . 

Miscellaneous. 

Con/.  .     . 

.    Conference. 

Mod.  .     .     . 

Modern. 

Cong. 

.    Congress. 

Mor.    .     .     . 

Moral. 

Com.    .     . 

.    Commentary. 

Nar.    .     .     . 

Narrative. 

Comp. 

.     Compiled. 

N.Y.  .     .     . 

New  York. 

Const. 

.     Constitution. 

Ox.      ... 

Oxford. 

Democ. 

.     Democracy. 

p.,pp..     .     . 

page,  pages. 

Diet.    .     . 

.     Dictionary. 

Par.    .     .     . 

Paragraph. 

Disc.  .     . 

.     Discourse. 

Pt.       ... 

Part. 

Div.    .     . 

.     Division. 

Philad.    .    . 

Philadelphia. 

Eccl.    .     . 

.    Ecclesiastical. 

Philos.     .    . 

Philosophy,  Philosoph- 

Ed.     .     . 

.     Edition,  edited. 

ical. 

Eng.    .     . 

.     England,  English. 

Polit.  .     .    . 

Political. 

EP.      .     . 

.     Epoch. 

Polit.  Econ.  . 

Political  Economy. 

Esp.     .     . 

.    Especially. 

Pop.     .     .    . 

Popular. 

Ess.     .     . 

.    Essay. 

Pref.   .     .     . 

Preface. 

Eth.     .     . 

.     Ethical. 

Prelim.    .     . 

Preliminary. 

Ex.  Doc.  . 

.     Executive  Documents. 

Prep.  .     .     . 

Preparatory. 

For.     .     . 

.     Foreign. 

Prot.    .     .     . 

Protestant. 

Fr.      .     . 

.     French. 

Pub.    .     .     . 

Public. 

Gen.    .     . 

.     General. 

Ref.     .     .     . 

Reformation. 

576      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


Rel.     . 
Rep.    . 

Repub. 
Rev.    . 
Rev.     . 
Rev.  ed. 
Riv.  ed. 
Rom.   . 
S.   .     . 
Sci.     . 
Sclent. 
Sec. 


Religious. 

Sen.  Doc.      . 

Senate  Documents. 

Report,      Representa- 

Sen. Rep.      . 

Senate  Reports. 

tive. 

Sess.    .     .     . 

Session. 

Republican. 

Sup.    .     .     . 

Supplement. 

Revolution. 

Sys.     .     .     . 

Systematic. 

Review,  Reviewed. 

Trans.     .    . 

Translation,       Trans- 

Revised edition. 

lated. 

Riverside  edition. 

Theo.  .     .     . 

Theology,     Theologi- 

Roman. 

cal. 

Series. 

Unit*.      .     . 

Unitarian. 

Science. 

Univ.       .     . 

Universal. 

Scientific. 

V.  or  Vol.     . 

Volume. 

Section. 

Wash.      .     . 

Washington. 

INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


Addison 

Montaigne  and    ... 

jEneid , 

Iliad  and , 

Agassiz , 

Darwin  and     *     ,     .     .     , 

Alexander  the  Great    .     .     .    , 

and  Caesar , 

Alfred  the  Great 

and  Washington  .    .    .    , 

American  Civil  War    .     .     .     , 
— —  Revolution      ... 

Revolution  and  Civil  War 

Slavery  and  Antislavery 

Unitarianism  ...» 

Ancient  History       .... 
Angelo  (Michael)  and  Raphael 
Antiquity  of  Man     .     .     .     .     , 
Arctic  Exploration  .... 
Aristocracy,  English    .     .     . 

Aristotle • 

Plato  and 

Art 

Greek 

Greek  and  Renaissance  . 

Renaissance    .    .    •     • 

and  Morality    .... 

and  Religion   .     .     .     .     , 

and  Science     .     .     .     . 

Astronomy  and  Geology  .    .     , 

Atheists,  Tribes  of 

Atomic  Theory  ..*••< 


B. 

Bacon  (Lord),  Character  of  . 

Philosophy  of .... 

and  Newton     .... 

Bacon-Shakespeare  Question 


PAGE 

344 

342 
272 
270 

385 
383 

33 
32 
"3 

112 

83 
82 

81 

85 
484 

24 
37° 
399 
412 
1 88 
428 
425 
358 
360 

359 
361 

365 
366 
362 
261 
472 
387 


94 

379 
379 
300 


PAGE 

Balance  of  Power    „    .    ...  183 

Balzac  ..........  339 

-  and  Hugo   ......  339 

Bankrupt  Law,  A  National  .     .  169 

Battles,  Great     .......  30 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward       ...  525 

Beethoven  and  Mozart     .     .    .  372 

Bible  and  Public  Schools  .    .     .  239. 

Bimetalism     ,     .     .     „     .     .     .  206 

Biography      .......  88 

-  History  and     .....  263 
Bismarck  ........  xoi 

-  and  Gladstone      .     .    .     .  101 
Brown,  John       •    •••««  129 
Browning  .     .     „     .     .     .     .     .  317 

-  and  Tennyson     .     .     .     .  317 
Browning,  Mrs  ......  337 

-  George  Eliot  and      =     .     .  335 
Brute  Mind,  The  Human  and  the  396 
Bryant  ......     .     .     .  322 

-  and  Longfellow     ,     .     .     .  322 
Buddhism      .......  473 

Byron  .........  313 

-  and  Shelley     .    .    0    .    .  312 

C. 

Cabinet  in  Congress     .    .     .    ,  157 

Caesar  .........  34 

—  ,  Alexander  and    „     .     .     .  32 

Calvin,  Luther  and       .    .    .     .  516 

-  and  Servetus  .....  521 

-  ,  Wesley  and    .....  519 
Canada,  Union  of,  with  the  U.S.  182 
Capital  Punishment     .     .     .     -  160 
Card-playing,  Dancing  and    .     .  462 
Carlyle       ........  346 

-  and  Emerson  .....  346 
Centralization  in  the  Federal  Gov- 


ernment 


37 


578      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


Charlemagne 

and  Hildebrand   .     .     .     . 

Charles  I.,  Execution  of  .     .     . 

Chaucer 

and  Spenser 

Chinese  Immigration  .     .     .     . 

Chivalry 

Christianity  and  Modern  Civiliza- 
tion   

Church  and  State 

Church  Property,  Taxation  of   . 

Cicero,  Character  and  Career  of 

as  an  Orator 

Demosthenes  and      .     .     . 

Cities 

City,  Country  and 

Civilization,  Modem  Christianity 
and 

Classics,  and  a  Liberal  Education 

Clay 

and  Webster 

Climate,  Influence  of,  on  National 
Character 

Co-education 

College-bred  Men  and  Self-edu- 
cated Men 

College  Government     .... 

Colleges,  Self-Government  in      . 

State  Universities  and   .     . 

Coleridge 

Wordsworth  and  .... 

Columbus 

and  Livingstone  .... 

Commerce  and  Manufactures 

Competition 

Compulsory  Education     .     .     . 

Conscience 

Conservative,  Reformer  and  .     . 

Co-operation 

Creeds 

Cremation 

Crime,  Poverty,  and  Wealth 

Cromwell,  Protectorate  of     .     . 

Crusades,  The 

D. 

Dancing  and  Card-playing    .     . 

Dante 

and  Milton 

Divine  Comedy  of     ... 


PAGE 

46 

46 

62 

291 

291 

175 

42 

50 
1 68 

211 

90 

285 

282 

S31 

S32 

5° 
252 
125 
124 

407 
244 

242 
249 

250 
246 
3" 
309 
107 
1 06 
204 
219 
237 
458 
527 

220 
506 
541 

53° 
64 
40 


462 
273 
273 
274 


PAGB 

Darnley,  Assassination  of      .     .  58 

Darwin 384 

and  Agassiz 383 

David 509 

Moses  and 507 

Debate,  the,   its  Nature,    Bene- 
fits, and  End 17 

Deception  and  Lying  ....  460 

Democracy,  Representative  .     .  134 

Demosthenes  as  an  Orator    .     .  283 

and  Cicero 282 

Descartes 434 

Descent  of  Man 394 

Dickens 333 

Thackeray  and     ....  331 

Division  of  Labor  and  Individual 

Development 229 

Divorce 171 

Dramatists,  Greek  and  English  .  277 
Drunkenness    and    the    Opium 

Habit 540 

Dryden  and  Pope 306 


E. 

Education 234 

Compulsory 237 

Emulation  in 241 

-  National  Aid  to   .     .     .     .  238 

Eliot,  George 335 

and  Mrs.  Browning  .     .     .  335 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  Character  of  .  93 

Edison 130 

Emerson 348 

Carlyle  and 346 

Emulation  in  Education  .     .     .  241 

England  and  Rome      ....  29 

English  Aristocracy     ....  188 

-  Dramatists 277 

Government 139 

-  and  United  Slates  Govern- 

ments       138 

-  House  of  Lords    ....  189 
Rule  in  India 191 

-  Rule  in  Ireland    ....  194 
Engraving,  Photography  and     .  368 
Environment,  Heredity  and  .     .  404 
Essay,  The 20,  21 

Ethics 452 

Evolution 390 

Examinations,  School  ....  251 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


579 


F. 

PAGE 

Faith,  Knowledge,  and  Reason .  487 

Feudalism 37 

Fiction 326 

Force :  Mind  Force  and  Physi- 
cal Force 445 

Franklin 117 

Frederick  the  Great     ....  97 

and  Peter  the  Great ...  97 

Frederick  II.  (Hohenstaufen)    .  100 

Free  Trade,  Protection  and  .     .  198 

FreeWill 453 

French  Revolution 68 


G. 

Galileo,  Abjuration  of  .    . 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd 
Genius,  Hereditary  .     .     . 
Geology,  Astronomy  and  . 
George,  Henry,  System  of 

Gladstone 

Bismarck  and       .    . 

Goethe 

and  Schiller    .     .    . 

his  Mephistopheles  . 

Shakespeare  and  .     . 

Government,  English  .     . 

of  the  United  States 

Laissez  Faire  in  .    . 

Party 

Greece  and  Rome    .     .     .. 

Greek  Art 

and  Renaissance  Art 

Dramatists .... 

Philosophy      .    .    . 


H. 

Hamilton 

and  Jefferson 

Hamlet's  Madness 

Hannibal 

Hastings,  Warren,  Impeachment 

of 

Hawthorne 

and  Irving 

Heredity  and  Environment    .     . 

Hereditary  Genius 

Hildebrand 


92 
127 
406 
261 

212 
102 
101 

297 
302 

3°4 
294 

139 
141 

,36 
»43 
25 
36o 
359 
277 
420 


121 
120 
299 

77 

96 
35i 
35° 
404 
406 

48 


PAGE 

Hildebrand  and  Charlemagne    .  46 

History 23 

Ancient 24 

Mediaeval 36 

Modern 49 

and  Biography     ....  263 

as  Literature 285 

as  Science 407 

Homer's  Iliad 270 

Homeric  Poems,  Authorship  of  269 

Home  Rule  for  Ireland    .     .     .  194 

Howard,  John 104 

Hugo,  Victor 341 

Balzac  and 339 

Human  and  the  Brute  Mind .     .  396 


I. 


Iliad 270 

jEneid  and      .....  270 

Illiteracy,  Pauperism  and      .     .  528 

Imagination 449 

Imitation  of  Christ  and  Pilgrim's 

Progress 514 

Immigration 173 

Chinese 175 

Immortality 492 

Income  Tax 209 

India,  English  Rule  in  ...  jgi 
Individual  Development,  Divis- 
ion of  Labor  and  .  ...  229 
Inductive  Reasoning  ....  441 
Insanity  and  Responsibility  .  .  461 
Intelligence  and  Morality .  .  .  236 
Intemperance,  Slavery  and  .  .  538 

Inventor,  The 130 

Ireland,  English  Rule  in-  .     .     .  193 

Home  Rule  for    ....  194 

Irving 353 

Hawthorne  and    .     .     .    .  350 


Jefferson 122 

and  Hamilton 120 

Jesuitism 4^o 

John  the  Apostle 512 

Paul  and 5IQ 

Jury,  The i58 


580 


REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY   WORKERS. 


K. 


Kant 


PAGE 
438 


Laissez  Faire  in  Government    .  136 

Language,  Origin  of     ....  542 

Thought  and 447 

Lecture,  The 21 

Lincoln  and  Washington  .     .     .  1 1 6 

Literature 267 

Elizabethan,  Victorian,  and 

Augustan 289 

Livingstone no 

Locke 436 

Longfellow 324 

Bryant  and 322 

Luther  and  Calvin 516 

Lying,  Deception  and  ....  460 

M. 

Machinery  and  the  Laboring  Class  228 

Man,  Antiquity  of 399 

Descent  of 394 

Manufactures,  Commerce  and    .  204 

Marathon,  Battle  of     ....  30 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots       ...  58 

,  Execution  of 59 

Mathematics,  Philosophy  and    .  259 

Maurice,  F.  DM  Newman  and   .  522 

Mediaeval  History 36 

Mephistopheles,  Goethe's      .     .  304 
Microscope,  Revelations  of  Tele- 
scope and •  414 

Military  Commander,  The  Great  75 

Milton 276 

Dante  and 273 

Paradise  Lost  of      ...  276 

his  Satan 304 

Mind,  The  Human  and  the  Brute  396 

Mind  Force  and  Physical  Force  445 

Modern  Civilization     ....  52 

History 49 

Philosophy 433 

Mohammedanism 476 

Monasticism 38 

Monopolies 215 

Montaispie 342 

and  Addison 342 

Morality,  Art  and 365 


PAGE 

Morality,  Intelligence  and     .     .  236 

Moses 508 

and  David 507 

Mozart,  Beethoven  and    .     .    .  372 

Mysticism 490 

N. 

Napoleon        71 

Banishment  of      ....  74 

Military  Genius  of    ...  76 

Nebular  Hypothesis     ....  388 

Negro  Suffrage 147 

Newman  and  Maurice  ....  522 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac 381 

Bacon  and 379 

Nihilism,  Russian 186 


Oath,  The 165 

Opium  Habit,  Drunkenness  and 

th* 540 

Optimism  and  Pessimism      .     .  443 

Oration,  The 20 

Oratory,  Ancient  and  Modern   .  280 


Papacy,  The .                   ...  44 

Party  Government 143 

Pastoral  Work  and  Preaching    .  499 

Paul  the  Apostle 510 

and  John 510 

Pauperism  and  Illiteracy  .     .     .  528 

Pessimism,  Optimism  and    .     ..  443 

Peter  the  Great 99 

Philosophy 418 

Greek 420 

Modern 433 

and  Mathematics       .     .     .  259 

Photography  and  Engraving      .  368 
Pilgrim's  Progress  and  Imitation 

of  Christ 514 

Plato 425 

and  Aristotle 425 

Plurality  of  Worlds      .     .     .     .  410 

Poetry  and  Science 363 

Politics 133 

Political  Economy 197 

Pope,  Dryden  and 306 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


581 


PAGE 

Postal  Telegraphy  .     .     .    .     ;  178 
Poverty,  Wealth,  and  Crime       .  530 
Preaching,  Extempore,  and  Writ- 
ten Sermons 501 

Preaching,  Political      .    .     .     .  502 

President,  Election  of .     .     .     .  155 

Press,  Liberty  of  the  .     .     .     .  167 

Press,  The  Pulpit  and  the    .     .  504 

Prisons  and  Prison  Reform  .     .  162 

Probation  after  Death      .     .     .  494 

Progress,  Scepticism  and .     .     .  488 

Prohibition  of  the  Liquor  Traffic  1 79 

Protection  and  Free  Trade    .     .  198 

Protestant  Sects 483 

Pulpit  and  the  Press,  The     .     .  504 

Puritan  Revolution       ....  61 

Puritans,  The  New  England     .  78 

ii    their  Treatment  of  Quakers 

and  Witches 79 

Q. 

Quakers,  Treatment  of,  by  New 

England  Puritans  ....  79 

R. 

Railway  and  the  State,  The  .     .  176 

Raphael,  Michael  Angelo  and    .  370 

Reason „  450 

Faith,  Knowledge,  and      .  487 

Reformation,  The 54 

and  the  Renaissance      .    .  54 

Reformer  and  Conservative  .     .  527 

Religion 467 

Art  and 366 

The  Primitive      ....  470 

Renaissance,  The 56 

Renaissance  Art 361 

Greek  and 359 

Responsibility,  Insanity  and .     .461 

Revivals  of  Religion     ....  496 

Revolution,  American       ...  82 

,  American,  and  Civil  War  81,83 

French 68 

Puritan 61 

Richelieu,  Policy  of      ....  66 

Roman  Catholic  Church  .     .     .  478 

Rome,  Greece  and 25 

— —  England  and 29 

Rousseau 356 

Russian  Nihilism 186 


PAGE 

Salvation  Army,  The  ....  498 

Satan,  Milton's 304 

Savagism 402 

Scepticism  and  Progress  .    .     .  488 

Schiller,  Goethe  and    ....  302 

School  Examinations  ....  251 

Science 377 

Art  and 362 

Poetry  and 363 

Scott  as  Novelist  and  Poet   .     .  329 

Sermon^  Written 501 

Servetus,  Calvin  and    .    .    .     .  521 

Shakespeare 294 

and  Goethe 294 

— —  Hamlet's  Madness   .     .    .  299 
The  Bacon-Shakespeare  Ques- 
tion     300 

Shelley 315 

Byron  and 312 

Slavery,  American       ....  85 

and  Intemperance    .     .     .  538 

Socrates,  Defence  of    ....  89 

as  a  Philosopher  ....  423 

Solitude  and  Society    ....  534 

Sophists,  The  Greek    ....  421 

Spelling  Reform,  The  ....  264 

Spenser 292 

Chaucer  and    .     .     .     ,     .  291 

Spurgeon 526 

State  Intervention 136 

State  Rights 151 

State  Universities  and  Colleges  .  246 

Stoicism    .     . 431 

Strikes 225 

Success 535 

Suffrage,  Negro 147 

Universal 145 

Woman 148 

Suicide,  Prevention  of      .    ,    .'164 


T. 

Tacitus,  Thucydides  and  ...  285 

as  an  Historian    ....  287 

Tax,  An  Income 209 

Single  on  Land  Values  .     .  213 

Taxation  of  Church  Property    .  21 1 

Principle  of     «     ....  209 

Telegraph  and  Telephone     .     .  415 


582      REFERENCES  FOR  LITERARY  WORKERS. 


PAGE 

Telegraphy,  Postal       ....  178 

Telescope  and  Microscope     .     .  414 

Tennyson 319 

Browning  and      ....  317 

Thackeray 331 

and  Dickens 331 

Theatre,  The 464 

Thought  and  Language         .     .  447 

Thucydides  and  Tacitus        .     .  285 

as  an  Historian    .          .    .  286 

Toleration,  Religious  .          .     .  521 

Trade  Unions 223 

Trusts 217 

Turkish  Empire      ...     -     .  185 


U. 

Union,  Christian 483 

United  States,  Government  of  .  141 
English  Government  and  Gov- 
ernment of 138 

Strength  of    the    National 

Government    .     .    .     .  151 

Perpetuity  of,  as  a  Nation  .  153 

Union  of  Canada  with  .     .  182 

Unity  of  Mankind 401 

Unitarianism,  American    .     .    .  484 

Universal  Suffrage 145 

Universities,  and  Colleges,  State  246 


PACK 

University,  A  National    .     .    .  248 

Usury  Laws 231 

V. 

Virgil's  jEneid 272 

Vivisection 409 

Voltaire 354 


W. 

Wagner 374 

War:  its  Evil  and  Good  ...  536 

Washington 114 

Alfred  the  Great  and     .     .  112 

Lincoln  and 116 

Waterloo,  Battle  of     ....  31 

Wealth,  Poverty,  and  Crime      .  530 

Webster 124 

and  Clay 124 

Wesley,  Calvin  and     ....  519 

Wilberforce,  William  ....  105 

Williams,  Roger,  Banishment  of  80 

Witchcraft,  New  England     .     .  79 

Woman's  Intellect 543 

Woman's  Wages 232 

Woman  Suffrage 148 

Wordsworth 309 

and  Coleridge 309 


VI 


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